A brief glimpse into the past and at the people who have lived in the Upper Missouri River Basin during an extended interval in time was made possible by examining human remains from many places and many cultures. The primary purpose of this book has been to examine the regional original natives' state of well being and to evaluate skeletal findings indicating health related problems that affected them during life. These findings were then compared with health related problems that are seen in the regional general and Native American populations. The findings contained in this report are designed to supplement and complement other studies relating to anthropomorphic and cultural aspects of this region's past.
The total amount of information obtainable relating to individual skeletons or collections has depended upon the availability, the condition, and the amount of the human and cultural remnants. By using modern techniques and employing the expertise of specialists in a number of the biological sciences it has been possible to identify most processes that appeared in skeletons of people who lived here many years ago. Through the availability of large skeletal populations from cemeteries and mass burials, infor mation has been obtained relating to previous demographic patterns. By comparison with living counterparts, epidemiology has been investigated longitudinally in the region.
As part of the introduction to this book five objectives were listed for it. In the material that has been presented, we feel these goals have been achieved, and the reader has been given the opportunity to know our findings and our opinions relating to the significance of these findings. We hope that objective # 4, "to generate interest in osteopathology from the past emphasizing that which came from this region," has been realized and that in the future amateur and professional scientists will carry on the work which has only begun.
Certain portions of the Dry Bones project are unique, and should provide food for thought relating to future avenues for research in ancient osteopathology. These include:
1. Investigation into the types of common, everyday infections in antiquity, and the microbiological agents that caused them.
Radiographic studies here, and elsewhere, indicate that upper respiratory infections were prevalent during the past 1000-1200 years, and that microbiological agents that behaved in a fashion similar to those prevalent today have been present during that entire time. It is likely these infectious agents existed here long before the time span covered during the Dry Bones research. Despite opinions of others relating to the possible absence in the past of certain diseases that are common today, our studies are non-supportive. Findings here suggest that thoughts relating to the type of infections prevalent in The Americas before 1492 A.D., and concepts such as the Bering Strait cold filter, may need reappraisal.
2. The entire matter of congenital and developmental disorders has been sadly neglected during studies relating to paleopathology. Anatomic findings from the past, historical accounts, and the patterns in present day inhabitants of this region are most unusual and interesting. Our results indicate that inborn disease was prevalent here, but anatomic evidence demonstrates primarily the occult form. Reasons for not finding overt anomalies have been advanced. Further information concerning the form and quantity of inborn disease can be investigated by methods suggested.
Although the possibility of consanguinity and incest as catalysts for gene mediated inborn anomalies was raised by the writings by Denig (90-53,191), at least one tribe, the Crows of Montana, had knowledge of too close intra-family mating. Frank Linderman (Pretty Shield, Medicine Woman of the Crows. University of Nebraska Press, 1972, p. 130-131) quoted Pretty Shield:
"Young women did not then fall in love, and get married to please themselves, as they do now. They listened to their fathers, married the men selected for them, and this, I believe, is the best way. There were no deformed children bornin those days. and A man could not take a woman from his own clan, no matter how much he might wish to have her. He had to marry a woman belonging to another clan, and then all their children belonged to their mother's clan. This law kept our blood strong."
3. Regional demographic profiles showing short average life span, a high rate of childbearing age female deaths, and high late pregnancy conceptus and early childhood mortality, all indicate short life expectancy in this region during the time interval represen
ted. This evidence does not corroborate some historical references to this subject. Yet, one Upper Missouri Basin tribe, the Crows, had tribal customs relating to age of marriage. Linderman (Pretty Shield. University of Nebraska Press, 1972, p. 103) reported that it was usual in that tribe for a woman to be given in marriage at age sixteen. This custom should have helped to prevent problems that attend too early pregnancy.
4. Considerable original investigation was necessary to explain what may have been behind or caused the Crow Creek massacre in the mid-14th century. In the final analysis metabolic imbalance that probably came from repetitious and prolonged lack of essential nutrients, and a state of severe nutritional depletion preceding the massacre, evolved as the best explanation. Some of the medullary space alterations and outer metaphyseal cortex changes in sub-adult long bones were unusual to us, and we did not find illustrated reference to some of these findings in the available paleopathology literature. We hypothesized some changes as probably due to protein-calorie depletion, and scurvy.
To explain the osseous modifications we saw in the metaphyseal-epiphyseal areas of growing Crow Creek sub-adult long bones, investigation into the effect of nutritional inadequacy is a fertile field for future exploration by dry bone osteopathologists.
5. In the literature of otology today one still sees reference to the article by Hrdlicka relating to outer ear canal exostoses (168). His report stating that during his study he observed these tumors in 27.5% of skulls from Mobridge, SD (Ch. 4, Epilogue) is quoted as gospel, and believed as being true for the general population today.
Our clinical work with regional Native Americans and the general population, and our investigation of Mobridge vicinity skulls, based upon a far larger number of Arikara skulls from the Mobridge, SD area than Hrdlicka studied, do not support his conclusions. As was pointed out by T.Dale Stewart, different sampling techniques rather than inaccuracies on Hrdlicka's or our part, best explain the difference in results.
This matter needs clarification for medical clinicians and in the literature of otology.
6. The finding of a rather high number of inverted maxillary teeth in this portion of the North American continent is most interesting in light of the report by Held (157) in Eastman Kodak, Dental Radiography & Photography that they are unusual. Part of this dichotomy may be that such anomalies are more easily recognized in dry bones than in the flesh covered individual, and they are actually more frequent than is suspected by clinicians. However, a genetic or racial difference must also be considered.
In the San Diego Hrdlicka Paleopathology Collection four malpositioned, five supernumerary, and two impacted teeth were listed, but none were inverted maxillary teeth (329).
Ortner and Putschar (246-448,449) illustrated a heterotopic supernumerary canine tooth projecting through the left maxilla (Chicama, Peru,NMNH 293595), and a heterotopic maxillary central incisor, probably not supernumerary with the crown in contact with the anterior nasal spine (adult skull from Pachacamac, Peru, NMNH 266005). A third adult Peruvian skull they illustrated (NMNH 267104) had a supernumerary canine projecting through the hard palate.
This is one area where the dry bone pathologists may be able to assist clinicians to determine the actual frequency of certain anomalies.
7. A major goal for the Dry Bones research project was to find commonalities and differences between the past and the present that might help explain some disease patterns in the regionaltwentieth-century Native Americans.
Diabetes mellitus and obesity.
At the present time in Aberdeen Indian Area and other Indian people both diseases are
serious problems and appear to be increasing in frequency (294-199). Today, the Pima
Indians have one of the highest rates of diabetes and obesity in the world (294-199).
The antiquity of these problems in the Indian people is unknown, (294-199). Frank Linderman (Pretty Shield. University of Nebraska Press,1972, p. 139) indicated that Pretty Shield saw only four obese women in all the Montana Crow tribe. In Southwestern U.S. Hrdlicka reported that pathological obesity did not exist. He related obesity he observed to reservation living (167-156,157,191). The only reference he made to diabetes was in a duplication of a 1902 resident physician's report relating to a Pima woman (167- 182).
The greatest effect of both of these problems is upon soft tissue, and for this reason it has not been possible to search for anatomic evidence in regional skeletons. However, in the future some characteristic skeletal modification may be discovered. Clinical reports have indicated that alveolar bone resorption accompanies diabetic disease (87-41). During research, this might conceivably be an indicator to be used in the search for evidence of this disease in peoples of the past. Finances and time constraints have precluded our investigation thereof.
Accidents and injuries.
Skeletal evidence of physical trauma was in all time frames and was what might be expected
in a stone age culture. Some increase in frequency of skeletal manifestations of accidents
and injuries after about 1725 A.D. makes one wonder about the importance of the horse as
cause.
Yet, today injuries and adverse effects are the leading reason for hospitalization in the Aberdeen Indian Area (Fig. 8.4). In this region's Native American population physical injury, and death, correlate strongly with use of the automobile, and are frequently alcohol related. Basically, during the past millennium only the sophistication of the means of inflicting bodily damage has changed.
Cancer.
With one probable exception, we were unable to demonstrate the effect of cancer upon the
skeltons of people who lived in the Upper Missouri River basin prior to the modern era.
Today, cancers that include those that can involve bone, are becoming more frequent in
North American and Aberdeen Area Indian people. Some of this is associated with increasing
longevity, but the anatomic location for certain malignancies is different, suggesting a
cultural, racial, or genetic difference (294-228). Explanation of reasons for the
different racial patterns may provide answers to cause(s) of cancer.
Heart disease.
In a personal communication (1986), Terrance Sloan, Director, Aberdeen Area Indian Health
Service, informed us that heart disease is rapidly becoming a serious problem in the
regional Indians. Whether the apparent increase is actual, or the result of better
reporting, remains unanswered. Although the cause of the apparent increase may be
correlated with increasing longevity, other factors are under consideration. These include
the effect of diabetes and obesity, alcoholism, and changed life style.
Hrdlicka reported diseases of the heart, arteries and veins as rare in Southwestern U.S. Indians (168-180,188,191). Today coronary heart disease is uncommon among full heritage southwestern American Indians, despite high rates of diabetes and obesity, but is much higher for U.S. all-Indians (294-209). The importance of racial admixture and adverse environmental conditions (e.g., heavy cigarette smoking) have been questioned as factors causing the increased frequency of acute myocardial infarction in U.S. all-Indians (294-211).
At the present time cardiovascular disease produces no easily identifiable skeletal changes that might assist the search for evidence of this problem in the past. It is possible that studies in mummies may provide answers concerning the antiquity of this disease.
Study of abnormalities preserved from the past in mummies and skeletons has fascinated amateur and professional scientists for many years. During the past four decades in the United States and throughout the World the study of diseases in antiquity has been enhanced tremendously by the availability of large numbers of well documented human skeletons and mummies. As the study of osteopathology in old skeletons enlarged in scope through increased knowledge and the application of sophisticated techniques, more and more became known relating to the physical stature, health, and disease in people of the past. The knowledge obtained has helped answer some questions relating to disease patterns in the Native American population of North America today. Through studies such as this it has become possible to know more about the health of previous cultures in this region than was obvious to individuals who traveled through the region many years ago.
At the 1966 Symposium On Human Paleopathology strong emphasis was placed upon the importance of (paleo) demography and (paleo) epidemiology in the study of paleopathology. It was advocated that biostatistics be used to facilitate utilization of data collected from ancient populations such that an isolated bone having unusual configuration might be related to the remainder of the skeleton and the skeleton related to the population. This type analysis is enhanced by careful collection of specimens, cultural associations, documented stratification and other environmental data, broadened laboratory studies, and then correlation by statistical analysis. Paleo-epidemiology is important in reconstructing the genesis and history of diseases (175).
During the past two decades paleo-demography and paleo-epidemiology have contributed significantly to knowledge relating to the health and well being of people who lived in the Upper Missouri Valley region during the past millennium.
The reburial issue
However, for about eighteen years the movement in the United States toward mandatory reinterment of all human remnants, purportedly representing the majority of Native Americans has increasingly hampered the activity of archaeologists, anthropologists, and those interested in ancient osteopathology. Much of the reburial activity has centered in the upper midwest of the United States, but its effect has been apparent in other portions of the country (75,239,249).
Beginning in 1971 the archaeologists of Iowa encountered increasing pressure to avoid research dealing with the recovery and interpretation of physical and cultural remains from aboriginal cemeteries. In 1975 a collaborative effort between archaeologists, Indians, and legal authorities, culminated in a formula for the excavation, study, and reburial of human remnants. As the result of negotiations, jointly supported changes in the Iowa Code accommodated the wishes of the Indians to protect the physical remains and spirits of their ancestors, but allowed investigation by archaeologists and physical anthropologists (10).
A law passed in Victoria, southern Australia, forced reburial of aboriginal skeletons, in effect emasculating anthropology in that country (197).
All these activities have made it increasingly apparent that the heyday of human archaeology and ancient osteopathology in North America, and elsewhere in the world, may have passed.
In 1978, when reburial was becoming an active national issue, the matter was addressed as part of a symposium, The Future of South Dakota's Past, at the Plains Conference meeting (127). A warning regarding the oncoming reburial issue was sounded at the 1980 meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists during a seminar on The Future of Paleopathology In the 1980s (126).
To help defuse this explosive situation regionally, in 1980 and in 1983, meetings organized by the Office of The Iowa State Archaeologist, were attended by Native American representatives and individuals from interested disciplines (9).
Because of concern by anthropologists and archeologists regarding the trend toward reburial of all human remnants, in 1982 a resolution was passed at the annual meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists. The resolution stated the case for the anthropologists and archaeologists, but did not address the matter adequately from the Native Americans' viewpoint.
A session on reburial of human skeletal remains, portraying the perspectives of the Lakota spiritual men and elders, was held at the Plains Conference meeting in 1983 (151). The sessions were well attended and at the conclusion of the formal program at least superficial agreement seemed to have been reached between some Native American activists and some archaeologists. The subject matter covered in these sessions was published (151), but dissemination of this report was limited.
Unfortunately, while this meeting was in progress, nearby the first seminar on paleopathology at The Plains Conference was in session. It was not possible for many who were interested in both matters to attend the simultaneous meetings.
In 1984 a committee appointed by the Paleopathology Association was instructed to investigate this problem. Much correspondence was exchanged and several meetings were held, but little of substance came from this effort.
Although the avowed purpose of the move by Native Americans toward mandatory reburial of all human remains is spiritual, to prevent desecration of the corporeal and spiritual remnants of their ancestors, it is entirely possible the move has political undertones (75). The majority of action on this issue has been by a vocal minority. It might be questioned whether the majority of the Upper Missouri River Basin Native American people actually know and subscribe to what is being said on their behalf.
A survey of Dakota Territory Indians
A postal questionnaire survey of Native Americans who resided on or near eight reservations in South Dakota, the Santee Sioux Reservation in Nebraska, and the Turtle Mountain Reservation in North Dakota (representing a total population of about 56,000 people), reported by Sigstad in 1974, received a 26.37% (48/201) response. The greatest response rate was from individuals who professed 13/16 to 4/4 degree of Native American blood, with rapidly diminishing response from those with lesser blood quantum. The only question receiving a 100% affirmative vote was whether skeletal remains should be reburied. In multifacetted Question # 7, respondents replies averaged 57.76% "no" when asked if Indian skeletal remains should be studied for historical, dietary, medical, cause of death, age at death, reconstruction of historical events, or migration patterns, reasons. Paradoxically, in answer to Question 14, "Should only properly trained people be allowed to dig up and study Indian skeletal remains (bones)?", 22 (52.38%) responded "yes", 18 (42.86%) responded "no", and 2 (4.76%) were undecided (295).
In the old Dakota Territory, the Arikara and the Sioux, tribes from entirely different genetic stock, were sworn, mortal enemies, who fought many bitter battles. During the salvage archaeology in northern South Dakota in the 1960s and 1970s, some Sioux claimed the final coup when the remnants of their traditional ememies were excavated. (William Bass, Anthropology Department,University of Kansas, Lawrence. Personal communication).
Local Indian participation in archaeology
While excavations were in progress at the Crow Creek massacre site members of the present day Crow Creek Sioux tribe participated in the excavation, but Arikara descendents visited the site only at the time of the re-burial. Although there was no hereditary linkage or friendly cultural relationship between the present day Crow Creek Sioux and the massacre victims (who were slain many years before the early 1700s when the Sioux entered the Dakota Territory), the massacre skeletons were interpreted as ancestral remnants.
At one point during excavation the question was raised whether the Wanagi (spirit) still inhabited the skeletal remnants of "our ancestors," and whether this spirit was being disturbed by the excavations in progress. A Sioux medicine man from another reservation was brought to the excavation site to investigate the spiritual aspects of the situation. After a religious ceremony that included use of a sweat lodge (Fig 10.1), during which representative specimens from the skeletons were participants, it was declared, "The Wanagi is gone" (the spirit has departed). These findings allowed continuation of the excavation until the contract with the Corps of Engineers was completed in late 1978.
We are aware of other excavation projects in state involving human skeletal material, during which there was active participation by regional Native Americans, with no visible rebuttal relating to the activity. The true posture of the Indian people toward archaeology, anthropology, paleopathology, and associated matters remains enigmatic.
As the result of the reburial trend in this region, we are aware that around a thousand skeletons have been returned to regional Native Americans in the past 7-8 years. Other skeletons have been targeted for reburial in the future. There is no way of knowing the fate of other skeletal elements we have used during our research.
Fortunately, all the reburied skeletons had been examined for pathology and abnormalities, and records and laboratory studies are availablefor most.
Figure 10.3. Bear Butte, obscure during the blizzard, preserving its image of mysticism.
Unfortunately, as we have found already with our evaluation of the Crow Creek massacre skeletons, at some future date information known or suspected to be in the bones will be needed for some purpose, but the bones will no longer be available for evaluation. Although representatives purporting to represent the Sioux have been the most vocal regarding the reburial issue in this region, only a very small number of the reburied skeletons were Sioux.
Some time ago, it became obvious to us that formal, organized, contingency plans were necessary to evaluate and record pertinent data relating to all human osteopathology that might become available to us in the future. By this means all possible information currently known to be of value, could be obtained systematically before the bones become lost again, forever.
Valuable experience in expeditious processing, handling, and documentation of findings in a large group of human skeletons was ours at the University of South Dakota in 1978-1979, when the more than 500 14th century Crow Creek massacre victims' skeletons were in the laboratory for about seven months. Logistics limited the formale valuation for paleopathology to about two and one half months, following which time the bones were under study by anthropologists. Despite limited time, inadequate laboratory facilities, minimal funding, and pressures exerted by the Indians for reburial, it was possible to evaluate each bone specimen at least three times, to document all obvious pathology, and to make photographs of all abnormal bones. Over 1,000 radiographs were made, and several problem specimens were evaluated by consultants before the bones were returned to the Indians for reburial. The paleopathology evaluation was a voluntary, uncompensated effort, utilizing personal equipment and supplies. Film for radiographs was suppliedby the Eastman Kodak Company.
It is considered unlikely that significant pathology, recognized at that time, escaped this screen. These skeletons were re-interred in 1981 and are now lost forever to further research.
About ten years ago the Over Museum skeletal collection was transferred to the Anthropology Department of the University of Tennessee-Knoxville, for anthropometric evaluation and cataloguing. This was done with the understanding that eventually these skeletons were to return to South Dakota and probably would be reburied. When it became obvious that many skeletons in the Over Collection and other groups of skeletons would have to be reburied, contingency plans were formulated (Robert Alex, South Dakota State Archaeologist. Archaeology Laboratory, Fort Meade, SD. Personal communication). One thought entertained was to rebury the bones at Bear Butte (Fig.10.2), because this is a sacred spot to the Indians. This thought did not come to fruition.
As pressures for reburial increased on the part of some Native Americans, the first skeletons requested were those known to be of Sioux. Twenty three whole or partial skeletons were considered of Sioux origin. It was agreed in mid 1982 that all Sioux remnants were to be transported from Tennessee to South Dakota and delivered to representatives of the South Dakota Sioux in September.
On September 20-21st our youngest daughter and I (JBG) delivered these skeletons to the Archaeology Laboratory of The University of South Dakota in Vermillion. From there they went to the State Archaeologist, who delivered them to the Indians at the Yellow Thunder Camp in The Black Hills.
We were informed on good authority that these bones were stored in a shed at the Yellow Thunder Camp for several months, at which time they were either burned or disposed of in some fashion. No official confirmation of their fate has been received or made public.
The other bones in the Over Collection were returned to South Dakota about a year ago and ceremoniously reburied near the Oahe Reservoir Dam north of Pierre, SD.
Pedagogy in paleopathology
Teaching in paleopathology is seriously in need of disciples. Very few individuals profess a desire to teach only this subject. Bennett questioned 363 physical anthropologists regarding trends and development in Physical Anthropology. In replies each respondent listed an average of "about two specialties," but only ten individuals (2.7%) indicated they were teaching paleopathology (42).
Kerley studied teaching of paleopathology and found tremendous variability in courses considered to be this subject among institutions presenting it as an organized course of instruction. One of the major drawbacks to succesful organized courses in paleopathology was indicated to be lack of good teaching collections (181).
With the many problems now facing archaeology and anthropology, the future of paleopathology is at present somewhat tenuous. It is to be hoped that a solution satisfactory to all concerned regarding the reburial issue will soon be forthcoming, so the very important research may continue. When a satisfactory compromise is completed, educators in paleopathology will be increasingly more important to inculcate upon students not only the mechanistic aspects but also the humanistic elements of paleopathology.
As South Dakota's contribution to the effort, the following activities are proposed, operative, or finished:
Although paleopathology is limited in terms of an unsupported career, it is a tremendously interesting field of study. It is a discipline that has in the past and, unless there is some drastic change, will continue in the future to be a pastime indulged in primarily by those who have another vocation. However, in terms of increasing scientists' ability to understand what happened to peoples in the past and to enhance insight into longitudional epidemiology, this field offers tremendous opportunity. The skeleton sans soft tissue tells many secrets, unknown to the individual represented, or his contemporaries during life. The mission of the ancient osteopathologistis to unlock these secrets and relate them to the individual, his culture, and their descendents.
At the time of this writing neither the Native Americans nor the groups interested in archaeology, anthropology, and paleopathology seem to know their own minds, or to have well established thoughts toward an equitable approach to the problem of old human remains. Land is an increasingly more precious commodity and highways and other developments will continue to be envisioned. It is obvious that territory used by previous cultures will be coveted.
Despite the apparent reluctance of some to compromise, perhaps it is time to diplomatically negotiate terms relating to the matter, that are acceptable to the majority of those involved. Unless definite general policy relating to acquisition, processing, and disposition of human remnants is forthcoming, the impasse will continue indefinitely and probably will become worse with time.
The practical approach to this matter from the paleopathology standpoint is that many health related problems in the regional Native Americans differ from those of the general population. Answers to some of these differences are emerging from investigation of the corporeal remnants of previous cultures. Through research into the past it should be possible to discover more unknown factors promoting these differences and bring forth better methods of prevention or treatment of these problems.
Applied knowledge of the past can unlock secrets of the present.
Markup by Larry Zimmerman, 4/27/98
