High birth rates in primitive societies are stimulated by high neonatal and early childhood death rates. Fertility is catalyzed by short life span and the premium on children as potential warriors, field workers, or as support for parents if the parents reach old age or suffer disability making them unable to care for themselves. Women in primitive environments today usually begin procreative activities early and often have multiple pregnancies during their reproductive lives, especially if effective birth control-measures are unavailable (234, 241. Sister E.Remley, Presentation Sisters Mission Hospital, Altamarino, Chiapas, Mexico, and T. Ibach, Mission Aid Station, San Juan Mixtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico. Personal communications).
Frequent motherhood is accompanied by pregnancy related problems, the two largest being, 1.health risks for mothers and children increase with frequent pregnancies, large family size, short between birth intervals, and too young or too old mothers, and 2. the experience of childloss increases subsequent fertility (241). The greatest number of problems that occur in pregnant females are of physiological (functional) or anatomic (structural) origin. Complicating factors that occur quite often during pregnancy include: 1. several different infections; 2. nutritional and metabolic abnormalities; and 3. the effect of physical trauma. Physiological abnormalities inherent to pregnancy consist of toxemia of pregnancy, Rh (blood factor) imbalance, nutritional deficiencies, abnormalities of the placenta, multiple pregnancies, disturbance of the birth process, and neuromuscular dysfunction. Anatomic factors include congenital, developmental, or traumatic alterations in the female generative tract, inadequacies of the birth canal, and fetal abnormalities which preclude normal birth. Potentially fatal abnormalities that affect pregnant and postpartum mothers, newborns, and young children, involve soft tissues and usually were not recognizable through characteristic skeletal changes. Of the many problems that beset the pregnant female and which could influence delivery of the child, only alterations in the bony birth canal might be demonstrable in the skeleton. For this reason, identification of osteopathology inherent to maternal and early childhood problems in individual Missouri Basin skeletons was not likely. However, when large cemetery population samples were analyzed, statistical evidence implicating obstetrical, neonatal, and childhood health problems appeared vividly in the demographic patterns. By evaluating these patterns it has been possible to estimate what existed in the past.
The well being of aborigines in the New World has been the subject of considerable conjecture in the past. By some it was believed that prior to 1492 A.D. aborigines were superbly healthy, and health related problems were minimal or did not exist. To enhance knowledge about natives living in the Upper Missouri River Basin and environs, Lewis and Clark recorded data pertaining to the every day life and well being of Indian people they contacted during their journey 1804-06 (77). Data preserved from this expedition provide historically valuable information regarding the people encountered, but they contain only a modicum of specific health related information pertaining to the early 19th century Indians.
Other observers (Brackenridge 1814 [55a]; Bradbury 1819 [55b]); Deland quoting Maximilian 1908 [89a]; Catlin 1861 [72]; Denig 1855-66 [90]) also supplied information concerning the natives and comments concerning the health status of the people they visited. As preamble, it must be noted that some findings during the Dry Bones and other evaluations of human skeletal remnants differ from certain observer reports, and some currently accepted beliefs concerning the customs and health of the ancient Indians. It is proposed here to review briefly a few historical references to previous Missouri River Basin inhabitants, to point out differences between some accounts and scientific evidence, and to suggest reasons for the non-corroboration.
George Catlin, the artist who produced many excellent graphic illustrations of North and South American Indians, first arrived at Fort Pierre, Dakota Territory, May 22, 1832. Subsequently he visited the Upper Missouri Basin in 1835 and 1836. During his visits to the area Catlin collected much information relating to the natives he visited as well as painting many pic tures of them.
In 1861 his book, The Breath of Life; or Mal-Respiration, and its Effects upon the Enjoyments and Life of Man, was published (New York, John Wiley). This publication went through several editions, and the title was changed to Shut Your Mouth and Save Your Life. Fundamentally, this was a treatise on nasal physiology that showed considerable insight into the anatomy and function of the nose and contiguous structure (307a) The primary purpose of this treatise was to emphasize the deleterious effect of continue mouth breathing upon humans. To emphasize point in this thesis Catlin utilized experiences among various Indian groups.
We examined the fourth edition of Shut Your Mouth and Save Your Life, (London, N. Trubner Co., 60 Paternoster Row). The book's first 15 pages contained information relating to Catlin's experiences during travels through this region and elsewhere. He described his efforts and his report:
"During my Ethnographic labours amongst those wild people I have visited 150 Tribes, containing more than two millions of souls; and therefore have had, in all probability, more extensive opportunities than any other man living, of examining their sanatary system; and if from these examinations I have arrived at results of importance to the health and existence of mankind, I shall have achieved a double object in a devoted and toilsome life, and shall enjoy a twofold satisfaction in making them known to the world; and particularly to the Medical Faculty, who may perhaps turn them to good account."
Some of his observations are pertinent to this investigation into health problems that affected pregnant and post partum females and young children who lived in this region many years ago. Appropriate pages (4,5,8,9,10,11,12,13) are reproduced, and comments we feel important and upon which we wish to elaborate, are indicated by number in the margins:
[Editor's note: These pages could not be reproduced or scanned at high enough resolution to be readable. Please refer to a hard copy of Dry Bones or to a Catlin copy.-Sorry for any inconvenience.]
#1. page 4. European Bills of Mortality
#2. page 5. Contrast in North and South American Savage Races.
#3. page 8. Contrast between civilized communities and North and South American Tribes.
#4. page 8. Number of children in family.
#5. page 9. 'Sleepy Eyes' in re childhood deaths.
#6. page 10. 'Sleepy Eyes' in re stillbirth and abortion.
#7. page 10. Mandans. Death below age 10 yr. and scaffold burials.
#8. page 11. Mandans. Small number of child crania.
#9. page 12. Mandans. Deformity or disabling disability.
#10. page 13. Pawnee-Picts. Childhood mortality.
While discussing the Mandans, Deland (89a-531) cited reports of Maximilian who observed unusual body hair pigment patterns in these people which may have represented an inborn anomaly.In addition he stated:
"The children have frequently slender limbs and very prominent bellies. Deformed persons are very rare among the Mandans. I, however, saw a very little dwarf with a long narrow face, and one man who squinted. Persons who have lost the sight of one eye, or with a cataract, are by no means uncommon. There are several deaf and dumb, among two brothers and a sister were all born with this defect. Some goitres, or rather, thick necks among the women are doubtless caused by too great exertions in carrying burdens on their backs. Instances where joints of fingers are wanting are frequent, but these come under the head of voluntary mutilations. "
Reference was made in Chapter One to the description by Denig of the complete lack of sanitation and prevalence of factors potentiating fatal childhood infectious diseases in the Arikara (90-49,52,53, 60). The mores of certain Upper Missouri River Basin tribes (77-253,254) undoubtedly were factors in gynecological, maternal and childhood disease patterns:
"The Panis, Mandanes, Ricaras and Bigbellies, are somewhat more than ordinarily indifferent as to their women. - No such sentiment as jealousey ever enters their breasts. They give this reason for it, that when a man dies he cannot carry women with him to the regions of the dead; and they who quarrel, fight, and kill each other about the possession of a woman, are fools or mad men. They are so firmly convinced of this, that many of them take a pride in treating some of the considerable men among them with their youngest and handsomest women. "
and:
"Indeed both the girls and married women are so loose in their conduct, that they seem to be sort of a common stock; and are so easy and accessable that there are few among them whose favours cannot be bought with a little vermillion or blue ribbon. The consequence of these libertine manners is the venereal disease. This is frequent among them; but the Indians cure it by decoction (concoction) of certain roots."
Figure 8.2. Indian Aberdeen Area Infant Death Rates 1955-1973.
From: Charts on Indian Health, Aberdeen Area, 7th ed. U.S. Dept. HEW, PHS, HSMHA, IHS, nd.
Obstetrical and neonatal health problems occur frequently in the Native American mothers and children in the Upper Missouri Basin today, but are gradually decreasing in frequency and severity through improved prenatal care, better neonatal and pediatric techniques, and through education (Figure 8.2, 8.3). However, very young pregnant females still present serious obstetrical problems, especially if their general physical condition and nutritional status are marginal (Fig. 8.4) (74. Loren Peterson, Obstetrics Department, USD School of Medicine. Personal communication).
In addition to their effect upon the gravid female, the prospective mother's physical and nutritional status, and environmental factors, affect the developing fetus. Other factors, including many of the complex chemicals and drugs available today, but not in the past, are implicated as teratogenic upon the fetus (Ch. 7).
Factors predisposing neonatal (birth to 28 days) and infant (28 days to 11 months) mortality in the Native Americans who live in the Aberdeen Area today include complications of the birth process, congenital malformations, immaturity (primarily prematurity and low birth weight), respiratory infections, infective and parasitic diseases, and accidents (Figs. 8.5, 8.6) (74).
In South Dakota Native American women today the birth canal is usually adequate for normal delivery, and delivery itself is rarely complicated (Sidney Wechsler, Consultant, USPHS Indian Hospital, Rosebud, SD. Personal communication).
Although fetal and early post-natal problems could have been different in the ancient Dakota Territory, it is more likely that they were very similar to those prevalent today. Gilmore reported that in the past complications of pregnancy were infrequent in Arikara women (115).
Menarche.
Menstruation in females on the North American Continent today, signaling the onset of
reproductive life, begins between ages ten and eighteen years, averaging about twelve
years (109-191;120;240-91). The onset of menarche is influenced somewhat by socio-economic
factors and nutritional status. Although reports differ regarding the age of menarche in
Europe and the United States during the past 200 years, the average onset has been about
12.5 years (108,192,358,359). Hrdlicka reported at the turn of the 20th century that
menarche occurred in Pima and Apache Indian women at about 11-12 years of age
(167-126,127).
Little information exists regarding the time of onset of menses and procreative capabilities for the aborigines in the upper midwestern portion of the proto-United States. Doctor Benjamin Rush requested data regarding this subject from the Lewis and Clark expedition, but the information now available from this source is meager (77-151). The aborigines in the United States and the Missouri Basin had knowledge regarding menstrual function (77-53,55,151;335-237,240), crude birth control methods (335-240), and abortion (335-238). How much of the knowledge available was utilized by aborigines in Dakota Territory is unknown.
Climacteric.
Menopause, indicating the end of female procreative life, ranges in the United States
today from 40 to 54 years, averaging about 49 years (240-93;269-356). Concerning the
female climacteric in southwestern United States Indian women eighty years ago Hrdlicka
(167-157) stated:
"As to the menopause, the almost general lack of accurate knowledge of age prevents any extensive in- quiry with profit. From what could be observed and otherwise learned on the subject, nothing appeared that would indicate important differences between Indian and white women; complications of the period and pathological sequellae attributed to it are very rare in the Indian. "
No information has been found relating to this vital function in the aborigines who inhabited the Dakota Territory. Regardless, the population data from this region indicate that few aboriginal females reached the age of menopause, if their menstrual function was comparable to patterns that existed in the southwest in the past, and as they exist today.
Miscarriage.
Although estimates range from 6 to 40%, spontaneous abortion probably occurs in about 20%
of pregnancies today (220-123). It was demonstratedthat one fourth of these arise from
chromosomal abnormalities, but these abnormalities apparently are unrelated to marital
partner karyotype disturbances. Immunochemical reactions between fetus and mother are
important factors in many abortions (220-124).
Figure 8.4, lists the leading causes for admission to PHS Indian Health Service and contract hospitals in the Aberdeen Area in 1974. Deliveries and complications of pregnancy were the third most common reason for hospitalization (11.4%). Information available did not stipulate the number of complicated pregnancies, or how many hospitalizations were for treatment of spontaneous abortion.
Cultural Practices.
Evidence exists that North and South American Indians, and other cultures, have in the
past and today dispose of unfit or unwanted infants by passive or active means (Ch 7.
227-75;230;234;319;326. T. Ibach, Mission Aid Station, San Juan Mixtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico.
Personal communication). A method employed frequently has been to abandon the defective or
unwanted infant away from the village.
Twice in the past fifteen years South Dakota Indian mothers tried to dispose of newborn infants with congenital craniofacial anomalies (cleft lip and palate), by abandoning them on the open prairie. One infant was left exposed on the prairie on a cold Winter day (Robert Hayes, State Health Officer, South Dakota Health Department. Personal comunication), and the other was left out in the hot Summer sun (143). Although both circumstances had lethal potential, the infants were rescued and survived. In the past bodies of infants with congenital anomalies may not have reached the community cemetery, in effect eliminating evidence of the anomaly and thereby skewing the results of subsequent osteological investigations.
It was noted during the Dry Bones survey that manifest and disabling congenital anomalies are infrequent in old skeletons (Ch. 7). The paucity of serious congenital anomalies in Arikara skeletons (which comprise the largest number recovered from the region) is disturbing when viewed through the lens of historical perspective. Denig (90), a fur trader in the Upper Missouri River Basin from 1833 to 1865, alluded to sexual mores of the Arikara Indians as follows:
"Many of the Arikara families sleep indiscriminately together, the father beside the daughter, the brother with the sister, and this is the only nation amongst whom incest is not regarded as either disgraceful or criminal."
In a footnote to the same quotation there is the following notation:
"Half a century earlier Tabeau observed sexual relations between son-in-law and mother-in-law were occurring in that tribe. (Narrative) The latter is particularly notable in view of the strict mother- in-law avoidance customs among tribes which prevent these relatives from even speaking directly to one another. "
In a study of children who were the product of brother-sister, father-daughter incest, Adams and Neel reported death plus major defect in 6/18. During the father-daughter matings 1/6 children had bilateral cleft lip, but there were no abnormalities involving bone. Of the brother-sister matings, there were 5/8 children who had some abnormality involving bone (2).
If defective gene structure existed in the Arikara and it is true that consanguinity and incest were a part of the ancient Arikara culture, it would seem that these practices should have acted as catalysts to increase the number of gene-transmitted occult and manifest anomalies.
Dakota Territory Findings.
Anatomic Evidence.
If in the past there were frequent intra-pregnancy complication rates, a number of female
skeletons should have been located with fetus in utero. Such has not been the case in
Dakota Territory skeletal populations.
One female skeleton was found with two well developed fetal skeletons in the lower abdominal space during salvage archeology at the Mobridge Site (39WW1). There were no osseous fetal abnormalities and no anatomic defects in the female skeleton to account for the maternal and fetal deaths. Multiple deep parturition pits in the female pelvis suggested that she had been pregnant one or more times previously. It is possible that the multiple pregnancy may have been influential upon this pregnancy's fatal outcome. A second probable fetus in utero was excavated during salvage archeology at the Larson Site (39WW2) (250). Owsley and Bradtmiller included these five skeletons in their report (252), indicating a putative burial with fetus in utero frequency of 2/221 (0.9%).
Table 8.1. Crude Death Rates Calculated from North American
Skeletal Collections*
Site______________________Date_____________Location_______Death_Rate
Nanjemoy, Ossuary II 1500-1600 AD Maryland 44
Nanjemoy, Ossuary I 1500-1600 AD Maryland 48
Sully 1700+ AD South Dakota 54
Indian Knoll 3000 BC Kentucky 59
Leavenworth 1800-1832 AD South Dakota 63
Larson 1750-1785 AD South Dakota 76
* Expressed as the total number of individuals/1000 population
dying per year.
Adapted from: Owsley and Bass, 1979.
|
Table 8.2. Age and Sex Distribution Larson Table 8.3. Distribution Larson Subadult Deaths
Cemetery Skeletons (39WW2) (Sexes Combined)
Age_Interval_____Male____Female____Total______%_ Percent of
0- 1 yr. -- -- 254 40.9 Age_______________Number_________Total Sample
1- 4 yr. -- -- 94 15.1
5- 9 yr. 6 9 48 7.7 0.0- 0.5 yr. 223 35.9
10-14 yr. 4 6 14 2.2 0.5- 2.5 yr. 98 15.8
15-19 yr. 10 21 31 5.0 2.5- 4.5 yr. 22 3.5
20-24 yr. 10 15 25 4.0 4.5- 6.5 yr. 22 3.5
25-29 yr. 12 10 22 3.5 6.5- 8.5 yr. 23 3.7
30-34 yr. 25 10 35 5.6 8.5-10.5 yr. 10 1.6
35-39 yr. 21 18 39 6.2 10.5-12.5 yr. 4 0.6
40-49 yr. 20 14 34 5.4 12.5-14.5__yr._______7_________________1.1
__50-59__yr.______10_______15________25______4.0 409 65.7
Sample Total 118 118 621
14.5-50+___yr._____212________________34.3
FROM: Owsley and Bass, 1978. Total 621 100.0
FROM: Adapted from Owsley and Bass, 1979.
Table 8.4. Age and Sex Distribution Larson Village Earthlodge Skeletons
(Massacre Victims)
Age_Interval_____Male_____Female_____Unknown_____Total_________%__
0- 4 yr. -- -- 8 8 11.2
5- 9 yr. -- -- 7 7 9.8
10-19 yr. 8 8 5 21 29.5
20-29 yr. 9 1 -- 10 14.0
30-39 yr. 9 7 -- 16 22.5
40-49 yr. 3 3 -- 6 8.4
50-59 yr. -- -- -- -- ---
Age_?__yr.________2________--___________1__________3_________4.2_
Sample Total 31 19 21 71 99.6
From: Owsley et al, 1977.
|
Depending upon the maturity of the neonate and the ossification of the skeletal
components, some inborn anomalies involving bone might be found during examination of very
young children's bone structure. Unfortunately, because the bodies of congenitally
defective newborn children or those who died early in life may have been disposed of other
than in the village cemetery, important paleopathological evidence appears to have been
lost.
Demographic Evidence.
A cemetery population usually reflects the funeral practices of the culture. In the
majority of cultures in the past as in Dakota Territory cultures today, mortal remains of
most decedents have been disposed of in established burial areas. Analysis of these
cemeteries' contents provides a cross section of the community and insight into the
physical status and health problems which existed in its people. Axiomatically,what is not
found is equally as important as the actual discoveries.
Table 8.5. Smoothed Distribution Crow Creek Ages At Death (Massacre Victims)
Age_Interval_______Males_______Females________Total____________%__
0- 1 yr. 5 4 9 2.7
1- 4 yr. 16 16 32 9.6
5- 9 yr. 36 35 71 21.4
10-14 yr. 20 20 40 12.0
15-19 yr. 22 7 31 9.3
20-24 yr. 21 7 28 8.4
25-29 yr. 16 7 23 6.9
30-34 yr. 15 7 22 6.6
35-39 yr. 4 7 11 3.3
40-44 yr. 3 8 11 3.3
45-49 yr. 4 13 17 5.1
50-54 yr. 7 13 20 6.0
55-59__yr.____________6___________13____________19____________5.7_
Total 175 157 332 100.0
From: Zimmerman et al, 1980, p. 10.
|
A unique opportunity has been available to examine not only village cemetery populations, but also the remains of victims who perished in two large massacres in South Dakota. These were separated geographically by 79 miles and by 435 years in history; the massacres at Crow Creek (1350 A.D.), and the Larson Site (1785 A.D.). Findings from these skeletons have provided a glimpse at the osteopathology that existed in a single population living during a specific interval in time, and an epidemiological profile of the villagers' health at the time of death.
About 55% of the skeletons from South Dakota aboriginal cemeteries are those of individuals who died before age ten years (William Bass, Anthropology Dept., University of Kansas, Lawrence. Personal communication). The majority of skeletons excavated from South Dakota have been from Arikara Indians. In Arikara cemeteries intrusive burials and bundle burials were common and human and animal intrusions were frequent, making it difficult to identify combined mother and child burials, as might have occurred when both died during the para-natal period (Ch. 1). The absence of soft tissue and alterations pathognomonic of pregnancy in female skeletons preclude determination of how many women may have died during childbirth and in the post partum interval from infections, hemorrhage, or other complications.
However, indications of a high obstetric age group mortality rate in the ancient Missouri Basin do appear in the population studies by Bass and associates at the Leavenworth site (1800-1832 A.D.) (33), and Bass and Rucker, Owsley et al, Owsley and Bass, and Deitrick at the Larson Site (1750-1785 A.D.) (34,250,251. Lynn Deitrick, Anthropology Dept., University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Personal communication).
Crude death rates (an indication of the total number of individuals dying per 1,000 population per year) allow insight into the mortality of a population. In Table 8.1, the crude death rates are calculated for six North American skeletal populations, three from South Dakota and three from other regions. The highest crude death rate was at the Larson Site (75.8), exceeding the estimated fertility level (crude birth rate the number born per year per 1,000 population). Owsley and Bass (250) reported that the average crude birth rate for the Plains tribes was 44-53 during the mid to late 18th century, suggesting a population decline.
Demographic data for the Larson Site cemetery indicate that 254/621 (40.9%) skeletons were from individuals who were below one year of age, another 15.1% were under 4 years, and an additional 14.9% were less than 19 years of age at death. Of those who survived childhood, only 4.03% were more than 45 years old (Table 8.2). Table 8.3, shows the age distribution of sub-adult deaths in the Larson cemetery, mirroring the short life span for the average individual. In the Larson cemetery, 118/621 (19%) of the skeletons were identifiable as females, of which 94/118 (79.7%) were individuals aged 10-49 years, plac ing the majority of the female deaths within the child bearing age range.
Table 8.6. Larson, Leavenworth, Mobridge, and Sully Cemeteries. Age and Sex Distribution
Male Female Total
Age_Interval______No._____Percent_______No._____Percent_______No.______Percent
0-0.9 yr. -- -- -- -- 468 31.5
1- 9 yr. -- -- -- -- 358 24.1
10-14 yr. -- -- -- -- 62 4.2
15-49 yr. 257 17.5 261 17.9 518 35.4
__50+_____yr.______39_______13.2_________33_______11.2_________72_________4.8_
Sample total 296 100.0 294 100.0 1487 100.0
Adapted from Owsley and Bradtmiller, 1983.
Table 8.7. Leavenworth (SD), Sully (SD), Indian Knoll (KY), and Bronx Age Greece
Comparison of Mortality According to Age
Leavenworth Sully Indian Knoll Bronze Age Greece
N= 318 N= 481 N= 1132 N= 230
(1800-1832) (1650-1750) (3000 B.C.) (670 B.C.-600 A.D.)
percent_dying percent_dying percent_dying percent_dying
Age_______________during_period______during_period______during_period______during_period
Birth - 3 mo. 10.0 9.0 6.7 34.9
3 mo.- 4 yr. 39.5 36.5 25.8 13.0
5 - 9 yr. 7.7 5.8 8.8 4.3
10 - 14 yr. 4.2 4.2 5.6 3.5
15 - 19 yr. 5.7 4.7 4.5 3.5
20 - 24 yr. 7.1 7.1 8.4 3.0
25 - 29 yr. 8.2 7.7 14.0 7.4
30 - 34 yr. 6.0 6.4 16.0 10.4
35 - 39 yr. 6.1 6.3 7.2 8.3
40 - 44 yr. 3.1 7.3 2.2 6.1
45 - 49 yr. 2.4 5.0 0.5 3.9
__50+______yr._______0.0________________0.0_______________0.3__________________1.7__
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Adapted from: Bass, Evans and Jantz, 1971, p. 160; and Owsley and Bass, 1979.
|
In the Larson village earthlodge (massacre) skeletons 19/71 (26.8%) were females, all within child bearing age at death (Table 8.4). Contrary to findings in those buried in Larson cemetery, of the massacre skeletons 15/71 (21.1%) were 0-9 years of age at death. Because it is impossible to know whether or how many of the Larson villagers survived the massacre or were taken captive, and only three of the 29 earthlodges known to have existed in the village were excavated before inundation in the reservoir, the village skeletal findings must be interpreted cautiously.
The higher female death rate in the Larson cemetery population in ages 10-24 years implicates pregnancy related problems, while the higher male death rate in the age bracket 25-49 years suggests the effect of warfare or accidents related to hunting activities (250).
The smoothed distribution of ages at death for the skeletons from the Crow Creek massacre common grave (Table 8.5) shows that 157/332 (47.3%) of the population were females, and 76/157 (48.4%) of the female skeletons were from individuals of child-bearing age (10-49 yr.) at death. Children's skeletons (age 0-9 yr.) constituted 112/332 (33.4%) of the skeletons. How many individuals survived the Crow Creek massacre and how many may have been taken captive is unknown. Unfortunately no Crow Creek cemetery population was available for comparison with the communal burial of the massacre victims and with the Larson Site findings.
Owsley and Bradtmiller compiled demographic data relating to 221 child bearing age female skeletons (adolescent/adult) from four South Dakota Arikara cemeteries (Table 8.6) (Leavenworth=31, Larson= 78, Sully= 62, Mobridge= 50) and 375 infant skeletons with femur length 89 mm or less (252). Because this femur length represents approximate gestation age 42 weeks, infants probably had experienced perinatal (stillborn and neonatal) deaths. The mortality was greatest for fetuses with femur length 75-79 mm, (N=175,46.7%) probably reflecting the size of infants at term, and the high neonatal death rate associated with this period in their lives. In this study 96(25.6%) infant femurs were <75mm, suggesting early births or small infants. No congenital anomalies were identifiable in the infant skeletons.
A comparison of mortality data shows similar findings at the South Dakota Sully (1650-1750 A.D.) and Leavenworth (1800-1832 A.D.) Sites, and ancient Bronze Age Greece (670 B.C.-600 A.D.), but a definitely different pattern at Indian Knoll (3000 B.C.) (Table 8.7). No obvious reason is apparent for this disrepancy.
Although it is difficult to determine much about pregnancy related problems from skeletons sans soft tissue, other than analysis for the frequency and number of parturition pits, burials with retained intrauterine contents, and pelvic disproportions, a considerable amount of information relating to paranatal and neonatal mortality is available through demographic analyses (12-266;13-315;14;15;180). The demographic profile portraying very high neonatal and post-natal death rates in aboriginal cemeteries is mirrored by the findings in today's primitive populations, one of which are those now entering the 20th century milieu in the Dakota Territory, the Native Americans.
Table 8.8. Life Expectancy At Birth In Representative World Populations
Time in Life Expectancy Place in
Populations_____________________History________________(Years)________Longevity_Scale*
Indian Knoll, Kentucky 3000 BC 18.6 12
Ancient Greeks 670 BC - 600 AD 23.0 9
Pecos Pueblo 800- 1700 AD 42.9 2
Texas Indians 850- 1700 AD 30.5 8
English 1000-1100 AD 35.3 4
Nubia, Egypt 1050-1600 AD 19.2 11
European Ruling Families 1480-1579 AD 33.7 7
Nanjemoy, Ossuary I 1500-1600 AD 20.9 10
Nanjemoy, Ossuary II 1500-1600 AD 22.9
Larson (South Dakota) 1750-1785 AD 13.2 13
U.S. Caucasian 1800 AD 30.0-35.0 6
U.S. Negro 1900 AD 33.8 5
India (Females) 1951-1960 AD 41.9 3
India (Males) 1951-1960 AD 41.9
England and Wales (Males) 1965-1967 AD 68.7 1
England and Wales (Females) 1965-1967 AD 74.9
* Greatest longevity in numerical sequence.
Adapted from: Owsley and Bass, 1979.
|
The distribution of deaths by age in an ancient South Dakota cemetery (Larson Site, 1750-1785 A.D.), the Aberdeen Indian Area population (1958-1973 A.D. in three year increments), and for all races in the United States 1970-1972, are diagrammed in Figure 8.7. Although much improved in the past 40 years, the fetal, neonatal, and infant death rates in South Dakota Native Americans are still higher than in the non-Indian population of the state and the general population of the United States (156-24).
In South Dakota Native Americans today, pregnancy in very young females carries a higher risk for the mother and the child (156-24. Loren Peterson, Obstetrics Department, USD MedicalSchool. Personal communication.). Contrary to the findings of Oram and Stanley (241), and the USD Medical School in South Dakota Native Americans, Hoff and co-workers reported that in 1,000 primiparous Black females, 12-32 years of age, there was no greater risk for primipara with gynecological age two years or less (2 yr. post-menarche), than in other primipara (163). Different socioeconomic conditions explained the findings.
The Larson Site had two different skeletal populations, those in the cemetery and others found on earthlodge floors. The earthlodge skeletal remnants represented massacre victims. Demographic profiles of the cemetery population and the earthlodge skeletons were very different. Whereas in the cemetery most of the skeletons (63.7%) were those of individuals below 9 yr., in the earthlodges 69% were between ten and 39 yr. at death. In the Larson cemetery at least 94/118 (79.7%) of female skeletons were within the reproductive age, suggesting adverse effects of pregnancy upon this population (251).
Marginal socio-economic conditions, early and frequent pregnancies leading to a high reproductivity rate, possibly complicated by concurrent disease, are indicated by the demographic findings by Owsley and Bass in the Larson Site skeletal population (250).
The majority of people born into pre-twentieth century societies throughout the world had in the past and now usually have short life expectancies. Life expectancy at birth for representative world populations are in Table 8.8.
Expectancy at birth gives an indicator of longevity and health status, and provides a measure to compare groups of people. As indicated in Table 8.8, the Pecos Pueblo Indians (800-1700 A.D.), had life expectancy that most closely approximated that of modern England and Wales, while people living in mid-18th century proto-South Dakota had the lowest potential for longevity. High infant death rate was the major factor lowering the life expectancy in early South Dakota (250).
Catlin discoursed concerning observations made during travels through the midwest in the early 19th century (72-7). He compared death rates in American natives with Bills of Mortality from London and other large towns in England and cities of the Continent. The Bills of Mortality indicated that in Europe, on an average one half of the human race died before five years of age and one half of the remainder died before reaching age 25. Catlin cited interviews with Sioux, Mandan, and other Indian groups, during which he was told that death before ten years of age was uncommon (#1.,2.,3.,5.,7.,8.,10.).
The Bills of Mortality referred to by Catlin (72), facts recorded in old records and upon tombstones in early North American cemeteries, and the findings in Missouri Basin aboriginal skeletal populations all tell a story of poor life expectancy in Europe and the Americas in the developing United States. Data indicating very high neonatal and childhood death rates do not corroborate Catlin's statements regarding his assessment of longevity in the Indian people who lived in this region. The most plausable explanation for discrepancies between Catlin's report and paleo-demographic evidence must be that Catlin did not receive accurate epidemiological data from his informants.
The report (#6.) attributed by Catlin to the Sioux chief, 'Sleepy Eye,' that women of his band had no still-born, and did not know the meaning of abortion, is not consistent with findings in the U.S. and regional populations today.
Catlin's estimated contemporary Indian family size limited to two or three children (#9.) is different than what emerged from paleodemographic studies of this region, and what is found in primitive areas of the World today.
Demographic data of Bass, Evans and Jantz (33) (Table 2), Owsley and Bass (250) (Table 3), and Owsley (1982), relating to pre, contemporaneous, and post-Catlin skeletons exhumed from the region Catlin visited, definitely do not corroborate Catlin's statements. Anthropological findings indicate that premature and infant mortality rates and general mortality were almost identical to those prevalent in the Catlin era European cities. It must be concluded that Catlin's information was inaccurate and not truly reflective of the contemporary Upper Missouri River Basin.
Anatomic evidence indicating lethal affectation during pregnancy and the neonatal period, and childhood, is sparce in skeletons evaluated during the Dry Bones project. Although two female skeletons have been found with putative fetus in utero, the findings do not establish as fact that the deaths were pregnancy related. Thomas et al, and Wells have observed that when female and infant skeletons are found in common burials, the finding does not establish conclusively that the two were related (316,348).
Ortner and Putschar alluded to rickets as a factor predisposing to female pelvic contracture, potentially complicating delivery (246-100). In 762 southeast Asian childbearing women Micozzi found four who had difficult parturition, due to obliquely contracted pelves caused by tuberculous destruction of the sacral ala (218). Despite the prevalence of tuberculosis in the Dakota Territory Indian population today, changes indicating the effect of rickets or tuberculosis upon female pelves have not been found. Female skeletons with pelvic alterations commensurate with tuberculous infection have been in observed in this region (Ch. 3, Fig. 3.8 and text). As to whether these changes disturbed pregancy is conjectural.
Infants with debilitating anomalies undoubtedly perished shortly after birth. Newborns with obvious physical defects may have been disposed of other than in community cemeteries, in effect eliminating them from the gene pool, and their skeletons completely. For these reasons, it is unlikely that skeletons with deforming and debilitating inborn anomalies will be found in the region. However, by evaluation of anomalies that are found and comparison to the present day Native Americans and the general population in this region and elsewhere, it may be possible to estimate with reasonable certainty the frequency with which anomalies not represented in skeletal populations may have occurred in the past (Ch. 7)
If the information source is valid, an additional factor that could have affected the outcome of pregnancies in Arikara women and their fetuses, is the allegation by Denig (90), that incest and consanguinity were a part of the Arikara culture. In the event these practices were prevalent in the Arikara, a high frequency of fetal abnormalities and death might have been expected (2). The findings during the evaluation of Arikara skeletons from several portions of the Missouri Basin, and different periods in time, do not indicate any increased frequency of inborn bone anomalies as compared to other skeletal populations in this region and elsewhere.
Little conclusive anatomic evidence of adverse effects upon aboriginal skeletons of pregnancy, the neonatal period, and childhood, has been forthcoming during the Dry Bones study, but demographic data have been most revealing. The situation that probably existed in aborigines is clarified by reference to health problems that prevail(ed) in people existing under primitive conditions today, or in the recent past. Many groups of American Indians living in the Western Hemisphere provide a convenient comparison.
Markup by Larry Zimmerman, 4/27/98
