What is risk?

Definitions of risk vary widely

Some states limit categories of risk

Many researchers reject risk or at-risk as a label for children

Factors shown to affect children's growth and development can be reviewed to consider the school's response

Levels of prevention

Primary: Focus on information, broad dissemination

Secondary: Focus on specific students considered at risk. Broad array of intervention options

Tertiary: Focus on re-integrating high risk students to school environment (after treatment, incarceration, etc.)

Knoff, in a review of American schools, noted few comprehensive school interventions related to divorce

Many schools provided primary prevention services to all students, addressing self concept or other global goals

School offerings of parent education may consider single parent concerns

Single parent concerns

Both parents

Role strain, fatigue

Loneliness, social isolation

Lack of role clarity

Child care

Keeping household organized

Handling new relationships

Single parents...

Mothers

Child behavior problems, especially sons

Financial stress

Depression

Fathers

Lack of child development knowledge

Employment advancement

Coping with adolescent daughters

Children's problems

Boys--

Externalizing behavior

Lower motivation and academic performance

Peer difficulties

Lower quantitative performance

Lower self esteem

Sex role identity

Girls--

Lower quantitative performance

Adolescent insecurity

School discipline (lower SES)

Higher anxiety

Lower sense of personal control

High risk factors

Mother-headed household

Male children

Younger children

Greater number of children

Causation of divorce

Inadequate financial and social support

Low maternal education

Lack of male involvement

Nonauthoritative parenting style

Brockman highlights confusing statistics

Evidence indicates half of all abused children are abused again

Mandatory reporting laws created to protect children

Extensive research on consequences for children

Factors that pose a risk

Prematurity, low birth weight

Handicapping conditions, chronic illness

Difficult behavior, hyperactive

Age: Major injuries occur most frequently from birth to age 3, from ages 12 to 16

Parental risk factors

Personal history of abuse

Lack of child development knowledge

Poor parenting and coping skills

Emotional and social isolation

Frustrated dependency needs

Immaturity

Other risk factors

Environmental factors play a role

Unemployment

Large family size

Research on sibship

Inadequate spacing of children

Marital instability

Indicators of possible need to protect

Child's physical condition

Child's behavior

Parental attitudes and behavior

YET signs and symptoms can relate to alternative causes

Caterino repeats concern about quality of available data

Typical abused child is age 10-12 female

Debate over offenders and child's previous awareness

Some clinical studies indicate need for structured, long-term interventions

Incest

Caterino reports peak age for beginning such relationships between 5-8 for girls

Treatment of family members often not effective

Long-term consequences for child

Some studies identify step fathers as more likely offenders

School responses

Schools, with exception of individual support professionals, offer few programs for families or children

Mandatory reporting laws and subsequent involvement of external agencies may preclude school action

Forman and Randolph acknowledge that schools have been very active in working with students and parents on substance abuse issues

Examples of prevention programs at all three levels are available

Substance use versus abuse distinction

Intervention programs

Social influence programs (e.g., Just Say No)

Broad spectrum programs

Cognitive, decision making, anxiety management, social skills, self improvement

Early intervention

Police responses

Medical treatment

Hahn demonstrates that frequency of suicide in an age group varies by time, country

Adolescents major target

Concern in recent years with younger children, even preschoolers

Family factors recognized by school

Adolescent causes

Loss of significant other

Recent suicide by peer, family member

Legal difficulties

Unwanted pregnancy

Family stress

Depression

Isolation

Selected research

Warning signs include threats or statements, previous attempts, severe depression, marked changes, distributing possessions

Adolescent suicide results from three states:

A previous history of problems

An increase in problems associated with adolescence

An intense period of problems

Profile of adolescents

Unsuccessful attempts-- 90% are female and often first born

Successful attempts-- mostly male, usually a younger child in family, 65% involve guns

If method of suicide is taken away, most adolescents will not choose another method

Studies of preschoolers

Rosenthal found that over half of the children lived in foster placements

Difficulty, of course, is understanding child's thought processes

Limited literature offers clues on warning signs, prevention strategies

Guidelines in suicide aftermath

Be honest, use straight-forward language

Listen carefully

Be consistent in your message

Talk about the deceased

Involve children in what is happening at school

Do not glorify deceased

Suicide prevention programs

Cantor says limit access to lethal agents

Berkovitz recommends five elements:

General mental health atmosphere of school

Optimum mental health staff

Suicide prevention program

Intervention program serving students, families

Postvention program