SUBJECTS
Subjects are identified through (1) word order and (2) cross referencing. Venda has an SVO word order. Generally the Subject precedes the verb. Instances where the Subject does not precede the verb are discussed below. However, if there is any possibility of confusion, the Subject is ordered before the verb.
Venda has an agreement or Concord system based on noun-classes. Subjects are cross-referenced on the verb based on a system of Noun-Class Concords. Subject Concords (SCs) are clitics which are prefixed to the verb stem and which agree with the Subject NP, whether the Subject NP is overt or not. Although Venda has an SVO word order, the order of clitics on the verb stem is SOV (to be discussed later under objects). Venda has a system of twenty noun classes (NC) (which also indicate singularity/plurality). Each noun class has a characteristic prefix. Each noun is made of its noun class prefix and a noun stem. For instance (Poulos 1990, 13):
(1) mu-thu
NC1-thing/being
'person'
(2) vha-thu
NC2-thing/being
'people'
(3) tshi-thu
NC7-thing/being
'thing'
(4) ku-thu
NC20-thing/being
'small thing, small person'
When the noun stem "thu" appears with the Noun Class 1 prefix "mu-" it means 'person'. When the same stem appears with the Noun Class 2 prefix, it means 'people' So we see that Noun Class also reflects number. When combined with different NC prefixes, noun stems can have different meanings beyond singular and plural. With NC7 prefix, the same noun stem now means 'thing', not 'person' (3) or as in(4) which has a NC20 prefix, the meaning of 'small' is now part of the meaning of this noun.
Each Noun Class has a Subject Concord affix which is prefixed to the verb. This Subject Concord is often the same as the NC prefix but it need not be. So, for instance the noun prefix for NC1 is "mu-" and its Subject Concord is "u-". We see this in the following sentence (ZWM1981, 23):
(5) Mu-sadzi u bika zwino
NC1-woman SC1 cook now
'The woman cooks now.'
[A note on orthography: verb prefixes (subject and object concords, tense markings) by convention are written separately but are part of the verb and cannot stand on their own.]
In (5) the Subject "musadzi" is identified first by its pre-verbal position and second by the Subject Concord prefixed to the verb which indicates that the Subject is a NC1 noun.
The Subject NP "musadzi" can be omitted:
(6) U bika zwino
SC1 cook now
'She cooks now.'
However, the Subject Concord CANNOT be omitted:
(7) *Mu-sadzi bika zwino
NC1-woman cook now
'The woman cooks now.'
First and second person pronouns, singular and plural, also have corresponding Subject Concords. For instance (Poulos 1990,172):
(8) Ndi do di-lim-el-a
1PS FT REFL-plough-BEN
'I will plough for myself.'
The first person singular "ndi" is the Subject Concord for the first person singular pronoun. The reflexive prefix "di" refers to the Subject "ndi" ('I'). This seems to confirm the identity of "ndi" as the subject of this clause.
Besides Noun Phrases, Clauses can also be Subjects. In Venda, this is done by nominalizing the verb phrase and giving it a Noun Class prefix, "u-" which is NC15. This is a unique NC which has both nominal features (Noun Class, can function as a Subject or an Object, and has the full range of Concords which are associated with other nouns) and verbal features (has a negative form, can incorporate object prefixes and reflexive prefixes). (Poulos 1990, 59) This NC is referred to as the class of infinitives, but it also has the sense of an English gerund. For instance (ZWM 1981, 16):
(9) U shuma hu netisa vha-nna
NC15 work (V) SC15 tires NC2-man
'To work tires the men.' or 'Working tires the men.'
The Subject of this sentence is "U shuma", made up of the verb stem "shum" and suffix "-a" and the nominalizing NC15 prefix "U". We know it is the subject because it appears before the verb and because the Subject Concord "hu" corresponds with NC15.
There is also an Indefinite Subject in Venda. The Subject Concord of NC17, "hu" is used for the "unnamed, unknown" NP. The use of "hu" might be compared with the use of expletives in English. In English, there must be an overt subject; in Venda there must be an overt Subject Concord. [Interestingly, NC17 is a locative class, with the meaning of 'far' or 'there' which has a parallel with the English expletive "there".] (ZWM 1981, 141)
(10) Hu a rothola nnda
SC17 PT be cold outside
'It is cold outside.'
(11) Hu a difha
SC17 PT be nice
'It is nice'
(12) Hu khou imb-iw-a kilasi-ni
SC17 CT sing-PASS class-LOC
'There is singing in the classroom.'
(lit. It is being sung in the classroom.)
(13) Hu do shum-iw-a nga vha-thu
SC17 FT work-PASS INST NC2-being
People will work.
(lit. It will be worked by people.)
In (10) and (11) the verb is referring to a general situation, a condition, where there the reference is indefinite and unknown. However, because of the obligatory overt SC in Venda, "hu" is prefixed to the verb. In (12) and (13) we have passives with no overt subject (patient/theme) but the stipulation of an overt SC again necessitates the appearance of the indefinite SC "hu".
PREDICATES THAT DO NOT USE SUBJECT CONCORDS
Although it has been mentioned several times that every verb must minimally have a Subject Concord, this is true for all verb forms except the imperative and the infinitive. It is possible, however, to extract the unexpressed Subject for both verb forms.
In the example above (9), there is not an expressed or unexpressed Subject. However, it is possible for a Subject to be expressed, using a possessive. (Poulos 1990,246)
(14) U sa tamba hawe hu a vhilaedza
NC15 NEG play(?) his SC15 PC cause for concern
'His not playing is cause for conern.'
The Subject of the verb "tamba" is expressed using a possessive construction since "tamba" has been nominalized by the NC15 prefix.
When an infinitive is the Object of a verb, its unexpressed Subject is the Subject of the preceding verb. In fact, the infinitive is used to mark a "no change in Subject" for a subordinate clause. For instance, we see in (15) that the Subject of the verb "toda"('want') is the same as the Subject for the verb in the subordinate clause "thusa" ('help'). (Poulos 1990, 284)
(15) Ri toda u mu thusa
SC1PP want NC15 OC1 help
'We want to help him.'
In Venda, subordinate clauses which do not change Subject use the infinitive; when
there is a change in Subject, a conjunction (?) is used to mark a change in Subject, and a
regular form of the verb is used in the subordinate clause, not the nominalized
infinitive form. For instance (ZWM 1981,102):
(16) U toda uri ri tshimbile
SC1 want so/that 1PP walk-SBJ
'He wants us to walk.' (lit. 'He wants that we should walk.')
In (16) the "conjunction" "uri" ('so, that') signals a change of subject, and we do not see the verb in the infinitive, but in the Subjunctive mood. The verb of the subordinate clause requires a SC, the "switched subject" "ri" ('we').
The imperative has an implied second person subject. In Venda, no Subject Concord is used but the second person plural (Subject) is distinguished from the second person singular (Subject) with a suffix.
(17) Shuma!
work
'Work!'
(18) Shuma-ni!
work-PL
'Work!'
The identity of the implied subject can be confirmed with an example of an imperative with a reflexive prefix on the verb (Poulos 1990,235):
(19) Di-thuse-ni!
RP-help-PL
'Help yourself!'
(There are other forms of the imperative, with differing degrees of politeness and some using SCs, but this form of the imperative has an implied Subject and does not use a Subject Concord.)
The unexpressed Second Person Subject of the imperative can be confirmed in an imperative construction with a subordinate clause. For example (Poulos 1990,284):
(20) Mu vhudze-ni uri a vhuye matshelo
OC1 tell-PL that SC1 come back-SBJ tomorrow
'Tell him to come back tomorrow.'
(lit. Tell him that he should come back tomorrow.')
The presence of the conjunction "uri" tells us there has been a change in Subject from the first to the second clause, even though there is no Subject Concord in the first clause. The implied Subject of the first clause is plural (suffix "-ni") and it is NOT third person singular (which is the Subject of the second clause). We assume it is second person by convention. However, this construction confirms the existence of a subject in the imperative, even though it is not expressed in a Subject Concord.
SUBJECT CONCORDS WITHOUT VERBS
(21) Ri vha-dededzi
SC1PP NC2 teachers
'We are teachers.'
(22) Vha-nna vha tshikolo-ni
NC2-child SC2 school-LOC
'The children are at school.'
(23) Mu-tukana ndi mu-vhuya
NC1-boy CP NC1-good-natured
'The boy is good-natured.'
In (21) we have an "identification copulative" which does not have an overt verb, but does have a SC ("ri") which identifies the subject. In (22) we have a "locational copulative" which again does not have an overt verb, but does have the SC "vha" which corresponds to the plural subject, "vhanna". (23) is a "descriptive copulative" and for singular third person, the Copulative Prefix "ndi" instead of a SC is used, cross referencing the third person singular subject. The Copulative forms in Venda are many and complex, but for this discussion of Subject, it is mentioned as an example of the identification of the Subject by order (in this case, not before the verb, but before the predicate) and by cross-referencing (Subject Concord or Copulative Prefix).
OBJECTS
Objects in Venda are generally ordered after the verb and, like Subjects, are
cross-referenced on the verb, using Object Concords (OC). As in the Subject Concords,
Object Concords are based on Noun Classes. In most cases the OC is the same as the SC.
However, in contrast with the obligatory Subject Concords, Object Concords are optional,
if the Object Noun is present. The OC appears just before the verb. The order of affixes
on the verb, which cannot vary is:
Subject Concord - Tense - Object Concord - Verb Stem - Suffix
[Note: there are other affixes which are not mentioned above, but this relative order does not change.]
For instance (ZWM 1981,23):
(24) (Mu-nna) u a u zwim-a (mu-vhuda)
NC1-man SC1 PT OC3 hunt NC3-hare
'(The man) he hunts it (the hare).
(24a) (Mu-nna) u a zwima mu-vhuda
NC1-man SC1 PT hunt NC3-hare
'(The man) he hunts the hare.
In (24) we see that when the Subject and Object Concords are affixed to the verb stem, the Subject Noun and Object Nouns are optional. However, in (24a) where the Object Concord does not appear, the Object Noun is required. In both sentences, the Subject Nouns and Object Nouns are in their standard positions, preceding and following the verb (respectively). However, because of the Concords, it is possible to change the positions of the Subject and Object Nouns if they are from different Noun Classes. In this case, the Subject is from NC1 and the Object from NC3. The SC for NC1 and NC3 is "u-" in both cases, but the OC for NC1 is "mu-" and the OC for NC3 is "u-". So, it would be possible to front the Object Noun (among other alternative ordering possibilitites):
(24b) Mu-vhuda, mu-nna u a u zwim-a
NC3-hare NC1-man SC1 PT OC3 hunt
'The hare, the man, he hunts it.'
If the Subject and Object Nouns are from the same Noun Class, then their order is not free, and the SVO order must be retained in order not to confuse their function in the sentence.
SECONDARY OBJECTS
Secondary Objects occur in Venda, whether because of an inherently ditransitive verb such as "fha" ('give') or a verb that has been extended, for instance, to include a benefactor ("-el-") or causative ("-is-") role. For example (ZWM 1981,119):
(25) O/-Mme o fha vha-nna zwi-liwa
NC1a-mother SC1a/PC give NC2-child NC8-food
'Mother gave the children some food.'
(26) O n-nea ma-kumba o sina-ho
SC1a/PT OC2ps-give NC6-egg POSS? bad-POSS
'She gave me bad eggs.'
In (21) there is no Object Concord, and both objects are indicated with Object Nouns. If there is no Object Concord, the recipient or benefactor always immediately follows the verb and the theme follows the recipient. Also, there is only a slot for one Object Concord and it is the recipient or benefactor which is coded on the verb, as we see in (22). As we will see below, when there is an Object Concord, the two Object Nouns then have freer order and the benefactor/recipient does not have to immediately follow the verb; in fact it can be deleted as we see in (22).
In the case of verbs with extensions, the same structure and rules hold: (ZWM 1981,112)
(27) Ndi fhat-is-a O/-khotsi n-ndu
SC1PS build-CAUS NC1a-father NC9-hut
'I help father build a hut.'
(28) Ndi mu fhat-is-a n-ndu O/-khotsi
SC1PS OC1a build-CAUS NC9-hut NC1a-father
'I help father build a hut.'
(29) O/-Khotsi ndi mu fhat-is-a n-ndu
NC1a-father SC1PS OC1a build-CAUS NC9-hut
'I help father build a hut.'
We see in (27) that the benefactor must immediately follow the verb when there is no Object Concord. However, in (28) and (29), the presence of the Object Concord has freed up the placement of the Object Noun co-referenced by the Object Concord (but not the Object Noun which is not co-referenced).
The Object that is coded on the verb is the Direct Object and the Object that is not coded on the verb is a Secondary Object. Both are complements of the verb and both are bare NPs but it is the Direct Object that (1) is coded on the verb and (2) must appear immediately after the verb if there is no OC. In (30) below, we see a verb with a BEN extension that has been passivized, and it is the Benefactor, or the object of the extended verb that is passivized, confirming its identity as the Direct Object while the object of the stem is expressed as an Object NP. (ZWM 1981,113)
(30) Vha-tukana vho l-el-w-a nama ya-vho
NC2-boy SC2-PC eat-BEN-PASS NC9-meat NC9POSS-NC2POSS stem
'The boys' meat was eaten by others.'
(lit.: 'For the boys was eaten their meat.')
Venda also has a "Secondary Object construction" in the case of "inalienable possessives." That is, for possession involving parts of the body, Venda uses a Secondary Object construction where the possessor is the Direct Object (and appears as the OC on the verb) and the possessum is the Secondary Object (which appears as a bare NP Object Noun following the verb). For example (Poulos 1990, 135):
(31) Ndo mu vunda tsh-anda
SC1PS/PC OC1 break NC7-hand
'I broke his hand' (lit. 'I have broken him, the hand.')
(32) Vele o m-baissa mato
Vele PC OC1PS-hurt NC9-eye(s)?
'Vele hurt my eye(s)' (lit. 'Vele has hurt me, the eye(s).'
In (31) we see that the verb "vunda" ('break') has two objects: "mu" ('him') and "tshanda" ('hand'). One appears as an Object Concord, and the other as an Object NP. Similarly in (32) we have two objects: "m" ('me') and "mato" ('eye(s)'). This construction is parallel to the Secondary Object constructions above with the exception that (1) the Objects appear with a verb which is subcategorized for only two arguments (Subject and Direct Object) and (2) it is difficult to say what theta roles should be assigned to each of the objects.
Abbreviations:
NP - Noun Phrase
V - Verb
NC - Noun Class (NC1 = Noun Class 1)
SC - Subject Concord
OC - Object Concord
PL - Plural
1PS - 1st Person Singular
1PP - 1st Person Plural
CP - Copulative Prefix
RP - Reflexive Prefix
PT - Present Tense
CT - Continuous Present Tense
PC - Perfective Completive
SBJ - Subjunctive
PASS - Passive
CAUS - Causative
BEN - Benefactive
INST - Instrumental
LOC - Locative
POSS - Possessive
O/ - Null suffix
Citings for Language Data:
Poulos, George. 1990 A Linguistic Analysis of Venda. Pretoria: Via Afrika Limited.
Ziervogel, D., P.J. Wentzel, and T.N. Makuya 1981. A Handbook of the Venda Language. Pretoria: University of South Africa.
(I have used the abbreviation "ZWM" for "Ziervogel, Wentzel, and Makuya.")
Back to languages table of contents
Back to topics
Revised February 19, 1999