Leisure and the Liberal Arts
169:072 Summer 2005 FINAL REVIEW
I have crosses out hhhhhh parts of this review that we did not cover
in clasee
This review is an attempt to aid you in studying for the Final. Certainly there may be both questions and information not presented in this review on the final. However, I hope that this might serve as a good supplement to your class notes and readings. GOOD LUCK ON THE TEST!!!
END OF SHORTER HOURS
YOU HAVE ALREADY ANSWERED MOST OF THESE QUESTIONS ABOUT “THE END OF
SHORTER HOURS” FOR YOUR DISCUSSION GROUPS- PLEASE REFERE TO YOUR ANSWERS
AS YOU REVIEW FOR THE EXAM. IF YOU ARE NOR SURE OF ANY OF THE ANSWERS, PLEASE
ASK ABOUT THEM IN CLASS OR DISCUSSION SECTIONS DURING THE LAST WEEK REVIEW
PERIOD.
How long did the work reduction process last?
Over one hundred years
When did it start?
Early 1800s
When did it end?
After second World War (if they say 1930s or 1940s that’s ok)
Why did it happen?
Workers wanted it- see fuller answer below
How did economists explain the work reduction process?
Backward bending supply curve of labor.
How did people feel about it?
Most people though that shorter hours was part of industrial progress- part of a higher standard of living
What did business people think?
Varied opinions. Traditionally business people have opposed shorter hours for various reasons. Occasionally, as in the case of the 8 hr. day (fatigue factor) and Kellogg’s six-hour day, they supported and/or instituted it in their businesses.
Who are Fred Taylor and "Scientific management?"
The first “scientific manager” started modern business administration. Did time motion studies to improve work efficiency. part of the “deskilling” of modern occupations…
What is "Economic Maturity?"
A economic state of now growth- either after human needs from what the market can produce are “satisfied,” of other reasons- the exhaustion of the natural world, for example
Describe the "Backward-bending Supply Curve of Labor?"
Backward bending supply cure of labor- more money paid per hour, after a certain point is reached, the less time offer for sale to work.
What is declining marginal utility?
The first thing you buy, in theory, will have the most utility for you (you will buy what you need/want most, first). Subsequent purchases will have less utility- you will buy what you need less after you buy what you need more—and so forth until the utility (the “happiness factor”) of the next thing you are looking to buy is not as great as the utility (happiness factor) of the time you have to spend working to buy that next item. And you say, to heck with this working stuff, I am not going to sort letters at the post office another fifteen minutes to buy a package of Poptarts…
What are two
ways that historians have explained the work reduction process?
1. Economic Interpretation
(shorter hours=higher wages and helps unemployment) theory: reduce supply of
labor (by reducing hours worked) and you drive the price of labor up, and take
up whatever slack (unemployment) left in the economy. John R. Commons
2. Cultural explanation- Workers wanted shorter hours for cultural reasons- time for family, friends, for values and activities that are “outside” the economy- free activities, Liberal Arts, etc… E.P. Thompson (workers stopped struggling against time and started struggling for time)
Describe the difference between the two interpretations.
see above answer
What happened in the 1920s?
See answers below
Why were business people pessimistic?
They feared OVERPRODUCTION- that industry nearing the point that it was able to produce all that people would want to buy- that people were getting enough and would take their time and not work to buy new gadgets/good they had never need before.
Why did they become optimistic?
They found a new theory- THE NEW ECONOIC GOSPEL OF CONSUMPTION. They begin to think That people wopuld buy new stuff forever, and would keep on working fourty hours at least to buy all the new things the marketplace provided… The ulimate luxury would become the everyday necessity, forever and ever amen…
What did Herbert Hoover's Committee on Recent Economic Changes find about leisure.
That leisure provided the vital time in which people could consume new stuff- but that it must be limited/ the idea that the shorter work hours process was open ended was challenged- Whereas 8 hr a day/ 5 days a week could provide a gold mine of leisure to support consumption, an open ended work reduction process would eventually take away from economy growth, and thus was rejected- the 40 hour week was ENOUOGH….
What is the "New economic Gospel of Consumption," who supported it, and how was it promoted"
See above
What about the Jewish Sabbath- how did it concern the work reduction process?
Jews in communities in the Northeast, concerned about the traditional Sabbath (Saturday as the holy day) joined with labor to push the nation to the five day week- Why do you think the weekend is Sat and Sunday- Why do you think the 8 hour day is the standard? They both are historical products (accidents) that will change again.
Name supporters of the "New Economic Gospel of Consumption," also opponents who supported the continuing decline in working hours.
Supporters Henry Ford, Herbert Hoover, Franklin D. Roosevelt…
Opponents: Dorothy Canfield Fisher (head of the Adult Education Association/ famous author), Abba Silva (leader of the Jewish Sabbath Movement) Msg John Ryan (famous Catholic leader who pushed for shorter hours for “higher, spiritual and human values),
Other names you need to be familiar with
Julian Huxley, famous biologist who predicted the 2-hour work day by 1980.
Howard Braucher, Leader of the
playground/ recreation movement in the USA
John Maynard Keynes, best know economist of the 20th century, predicted the 3-hour day by the end of the 20th century
Fred Taylor, Founder of “scientific management”
Francis Perkins, FDR’s Sec. of state when he was governor there, and later his sec. of Labor
Rexford Tugwell, General Johnson, Part of FDR’s brain trust who advised him to oppose the thirty-hour bill
Lewis Brown, CEO of the Kellogg Company who initiated the six-hour day.
Harry Hopkins, Part of FRD’s Administration who lead the way to the new, revolutionary governmental policy of WORK CREATION during Roosevelt’s “2nd New Deal”
Dahlberg, economist advocating shorter hours as an unemployment measure.
FDR, Franklin Delano Roosevelt
Hugo Black and Wm. Connery? Black- rep from Mass, Black, Senator from Ala. introduce the thirty hour bill to Congress in 1932
What is Black-Connery bill?
Thirty hour legislation- Any business engaged in interstate commerce (which is virtually everybody) will have a normal working week of thirty hours- any longer and a substantial penalty would be paid workers (this penalty changed around from over double time to time and a half- what we have now)
Know what happened to the Black-Connery Bill, from beginning to end.
What is the Fair Labor Standards Act? Where did it come from?
It was what finally became of the Black/Connery bill- after FDR had pulled all the B/C bill’s workshaing teeth.
According to Hunnicutt, What is the "Watershed" of Modern U.S. politics?
When government intervened into the economy, supporting business directly, finding ways to stimulate the economy (monitary policy), expanding government (more government jobs) in order to created more jobs to replace thoses that the economy and machines were eliminating. In short, FDR intervened in the economy to support a business theory from the 1920s- the New Economy Gospel of Consumption.- Subsequently this policy has become the beadrock of modern politics.
How does the "Watershed" relate to working hours?
Working hours were stabilized- as Hoover’s Commission had recommened- How? By government setting standard hours (at 40) by artificially expanding the demand for labor
What is the New Hampshire Plan?
Workers and employers share the “cost” of work sharing 50/50
Compare the New Hampshire Plan to what happened in Battle Creek.
Kellogg’s six-hour day shared the cost of shorter hours 50/50
between the company and the workers
What is the Teagle Committee-Commission?
Represented Hoover’s voluntaristic approach to work sharing
What is the NRA, the NIRA, The WPA, the PWA.
NIRA- National Industrial Recovery Act; NRA, National Recovery Administration; WPA, Works Progress Administration; PWA. Public Works Administration
How does the Social Security Legislation or the 1930s relate to work reduction?
Initially SS was a work sharing measure, designed to get people to retire as early as 50 years old to make room for younger workers, then it was changed to be the “safety net” we know now.
How did FDR plan to create work? - Name two general ways, and be able to name specific legislation and governmental programs.
Enlarge the government (more government jobs)
Expand public works (WPA, PWA)
Expand the economy (monetary policy, deficit spending, larger government debt, liberal treasury policy)
YOU HAVE ALREADY ANSWERED MOST OF THESE QUESTIONS ABOUT “THE END OF SHORTER HOURS” FOR YOUR DISCUSSION GROUPS- PLEASE REFERE TO YOUR ANSWERS AS YOU REVIEW FOR THE EXAM. IF YOU ARE NOR SURE OF ANY OF THE ANSWERS, PLEASE ASK ABOUT THEM IN CLASS OR DISCUSSION SECTIONS DURING THE LAST WEEK REVIEW PERIOD.
KELLOGG’S SIX-HOUR DAY
Be able to recount the general history of Kellogg’s Six-Hour experiment. When, how, and why it started. When, how, and why it ended. Who supported it and why. Who opposed it and why.
Know
Liberation Capitalism- vs. Welfare Capitalism
Lewis Brown
Lord Leverhulme
Who initiated, and who supported six-hours?
Why did workers support six-hours?
Why did management initiate six-hours?
What did people do with the extra time?
Was the experiment “practical,” i.e., did it pay for itself? How?
What did six-hours do to traditional gender roles?
Deviants- the “work hogs” and the “mavericks”
What happened when the union came in 1937?
What happened during World War II?
What happened after the war when there were votes taken about six-hours?
Who lead the way in opposition to six-hours and in favor of returning to eight?
Who wanted to keep six-hours during 1950-1985? Why?
Be able to give several reasons why six-hours ended at Kellogg.
Be able to “tell the story” of the ending.
HISTORY OF UTOPIAS
Utopias
Ancient, Classic Utopias
Based on either
Religion (heaven, garden of Eden)
or Political victory- e.g., Pax Roman (Virgil)
or Folk legend, vision of a good place (sensual pleasures dominate, food, drink, etc)
Golden age
Modern utopias
The first is Henry More's Utopia
Utopia = Enlightenment project- human perfection through reason. Human perfection through science-
Through social science- just as science (Newton, Darwin) solves the mysteries of nature, just so will SOCIAL SCIENCE solve the problems of human society- government, justice, peace, "necessities."
technology- the application of science to human necessity to meet needs, solve problems-
SCIENCE'S MAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIETY- SCIENCE MAIN SOCIAL REASON FOR BEING = LABOR SAVING DEVICE
Late 19th Century- explosion of Utopias because "Enough" in sight = work's crisis
Necessity's Obsolescence was expected
Utopioan Examples
Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward
Wm. Deans Howells, A Traveler from Altruia
James Hilton Lost Horizons Shangra La
H.G. Wells, Time Machine , Things to Come , Man
Who Could Work Miracles
But World War I comes along and with it a Loss of faith in science and progress and human perfection.
The conclusion of the Twentieth Century = Science will just as likely to breed monsters, as to give us "enough" and then leisure
Hence the Rise of Dystopias
Examples include-- Orwell's, 1984, Huxley, Brave New World
etc.
Science/reason = Hell on earth
forerunners, earlier examples of Dystopias
Chaplin's "Modern Times," "Frankenstein"
Your find your own examples of Dystopias from movies you have seen and books you have read.
UTOPIAN VISIONS
Answer. 1.) Who was Wm. Morris?
2.)When did he live? Name
three of his main ideas.
3.) What is Morris's vision of work, perfected by modern life?
4.) What are Morris' ideas about leisure?
5.) What role does leisure play in Morris' utopia?
6.) What is Morris' view of crafts and arts?
7.) When did the movement happen? Who were some of the important people
associated with the movement?
8.) What did the
"style" look like?
9.) How was the British
movement different from the movement in the USA?
10.)Who is Stickley?
11.)Who is Hubbard?
12.) Describe Wright's style.
13.) What are three of his ideas about buildings.
14.) When do the people of
Bellamy's utopia retire?
15.) Compare Bellamy views of work and leisure with Morris.
16.) What do people do in Bellamy's utopia when they retire?
17.) What is the role of professional sportsmen(women) and professional
"artists" in Bellamy's utopia.
WALDEN General
I refer you to the lecture notes for Walden Two up on the class web page- know all the material contained in these notes!
The following is a few things I have had the time to write up…
· Is Walden Two a Utopian Book?
o Walden Two is a "utopian" book. It was one of the last such books to be written in this century.
· Since Walden Two was published, how have most books viewed the future?
o Much more pessimistically AND CALLED Dystopias
· Name some of the utopian novels Skinner refers to in Walden Two?
o Walden, Looking Backward, Erehwon, Things to Come, The Theory of the Leisure Class (written by Thorstein Veblen) , Republic, Atlantis.
· Who wrote the first modern utopia?
o More
· What American architect had a similar philosophy toward building as the Walden Two designers?
o Frank Lloyd Wright.
· Skinner's belief that freedom without rationality is in fact slavery is reminiscent of whom?
o Plato.
·
What is the Labor Theory of Value?
o Value
determined by how much worker time went into producing something.
·
What is the Market Theory?
o Value
determined by the laws of supply and demand.
· What group of scientists influenced Skinner in the writing of Walden Two?
o The Technocrats.
· What does Skinner feel will motivate an individual to act morally?
o He believes that if we know how bad things will eventually turn on itself -- "What goes around, comes around" -- individuals will respond RATIONALLY by acting morally.
o What is the significance of the names Burris and Frazier?
o The first letter from each of these character's names are the initials of the author, B. F. Skinner. In many ways Skinner sees himself as a cross between these two characters. represents the "thought experiment” that Skinner is trying to do in the book.
o What is the significance of the bus and train ride at the beginning of Walden Two?
o It is a device used as a framing mechanism between a the “real world” of the professor's office and a “thought experiment”- the posited world of “what if.” It invites us into the game and states that where we are going is not real. This device has been used frequently by others, such as the trolley that carries Mr. Rogers to the Magic Kingdom.
o What does the sheep, surrounded by a string represent?
o Skinner knew that because he was a behavioral scientist he would be accused of trying to manipulate people- treating them like sheep. To address this criticism, the first image of Walden Two is the sheep herd enclosed by the string. While there are boundaries around us in society, the boundary for Walden Two is represented by the string. The string represents control and is an example of behavioral engineering.
o What does Bishop the sheepdog represent?
o Reason. the ultimate authority inn Walden Two
o How does Frazier address irrationality?
o When discussing the weather with Barb, she states that she likes to walk in the rain. Frazier, while justifying her feeling, comments, "but not all kinds of rain." What is to be discovered by this dialogue is that although Walden Two founded on rationality and science, once necessary things are taken care of (i.e., economics and politics, --in this case no longer ruled by the weather) then one can be as irrational and irresponsible as he or she wants. The payoff of work is being as irrational as you want, "within" reason. “It’s rational to be irrational.”
o What is the significance of Walden Two's see-through dishes and the tea service found in the ladder?
o This is an example of the industrialization of housework.(huzzyfry) By being see-through, the dishes at Walden Two were able to be washed without being turned over. With this efficiency an individual gained more freedom. In our culture, much more prevalent when Skinner published Walden Two than today, women are burdened with dishwashing. Skinner saw this as a poor use of a woman's resources. By industrializing housework, Skinner felt you freed women.- LABOR SAVING is the primary use of technology- not the creation of new needs and new work and new necessity.
o What is meant by the phrase that Walden Two avoided the "goat and the loom"?
o It refers to the fact that the community of Walden Two accepted modern machines that eased work and did not try to go back to earlier "labor intensive" forms of work. Other utopian experiments, such as BROOK FARM often rejected modern technology and machines.
o C. Specifics
o What were the buildings of Walden Two constructed from?
o Rammed earth.
o In designing the buildings at Walden Two, was the emphasis placed on public or private space?
o The emphasis was on public space with the private spaces resembling dorm rooms.
o Give some characteristics of the buildings at Walden Two.
o They were cheap, functional, straightforward, very efficient, used available materials, and utilized a simple architectural style. FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION
o What is the final source of authority for Walden Two?
o Reason and rational thought.
o What kind of clothing was worn at Walden Two?
o Anything goes. The community of Walden Two believed in wearing clothes that won't go out of style. To be slaves of fashion was viewed to be irrational- a good example of the slavery inherent in the creation of needs.
o What is a central concern with the book Walden Two?
o The question of freedom.
o
o Does it result in boredom?
o Skinner is not completely sure, he is worried about boredom, Boredom would be the way that his “experiment” could fail- if people had leisure, they may not be able to find things to do worthwhile in and for themselves.
o How does Skinner view the family structure?
o He criticizes it. He feels that there are too many pressures on the nuclear family and recommends as an alternative, the community acting as an extended family.
o How is sexuality addressed in Walden Two?
o Sexuality in the community of Walden Two is of relatively little importance, Puritan-like. Because sexuality is not denied to adolescents and an individual can conveniently get married there is no sexual repression or denial. Thus "seduction is not expected" and the sexes can be friendly to each other.
o How did the labor credits work in Walden Two?
o The harder and less desirable job was the more labor credits an individual earned -- thus working less. Hence free time was the great motivator
o What was the average workday at Walden Two?
o Four hours.
o Explain the phrase "leisure is our levitation" with regard to the community of Walden Two?
o This is an open-ended question. You should be able to construct Hunnicutt’s explanation given in class- consult your notes- Be sure you know the “characters” in this image- Beatrice, Vergil, Dante, the magician and his female assistant… and what these characters represent.
o Describe the government of Walden Two.
o The community of Walden Two is governed by managers. A manager in Walden Two is similar to an engineer. The power entrusted in a manager is not for prestige. The goals of a manager are just like any other job in Walden Two -- efficiency and order. The final authority of government is reason and rationality.
o What is the definition of huzzifry?
o It is the industrialization of housework. Through this industrialization women, who traditional have been burdened with housework, are freed.
o Is there personal ownership in Walden Two?
o Very little. This, however, is not a pitch for communism. Communism is a system deeply concerned about work whereas Walden Two's interest is in eliminating work.
o Why is violence and drinking not a problem in Walden Two?
o Skinner felt that problems such as these were caused by society; i.e., exploitation, pressures of working/family life, not allowing sexual expression, etc. His basic premise is that people are basically good and it is the irrationality of society that makes an individual bad. Walden Two creates an rational environment where this destructive social behavior isn't necessary.
o How does our society differ from Walden Two in its motive toward education?
o Education in today's society is motivated by grades, distinction, status, etc. Higher and higher degrees are becoming necessary for jobs. In contrast, Walden Two is motivated by the free joy of learning. Skinner believes we have a natural curiosity. There is a division between education for work (technical training) and general education in the liberal arts. Adult education is stressed much more than in our school systems.
o How did the community of Walden Two view competition?
o They saw competition as wasteful. More things can be done in less time without competition. Unrestrained competition can be very destructive.
o In Walden Two, was "menial work" work left to an under-class of workers?
o No, everyone "pulled his own weight."
o How does Skinner explain Walden’s four hour day?
o --One hour of work is eliminated due to the fact that when hours are shorter, efficiency is improved. --One hour of work is eliminated because of motivation, everyone working for themselves. --One hour of work is eliminated because everyone works. --One hour of work is eliminated with the elimination of all unnecessary work. One hour by the elimination of unnecessary consumption --One hours of work are eliminated with the freeing of women to work.
Note that these eliminated hours of labor more than justifies the four hour day.
D. Writing Without Teachers
* According to Elbow, what are the stages of writing?
1. Start writing, ten minute writing exercises.
2. Period of chaos- loosing one’s way…
3. Center of gravity, a theme emerges
4. Start to edit, chisel away
5. Editorial process
6. People in group used as sounding board
Know what Elbow’s metaphors, “cooking and growing”
refer to.
Know what he means by “Dr Jeckle and Mr. Hyde. That writing is as
much a psychological/emotional process as an intellectual one.
ALDO LEOPOLD
Leisure for Nature
Inside and outside
Alienation- defined. Being taken away from our real/natural/authentic self and home
What is leisure and the autotelic for? Answer, Nature, our primordial home
Literature (remember Horace and Virgil) about freedom and leisure returns again and again to nature and the natural-
To simplicity/appreciation/wonder/beauty/quiet/peace/home
Aldo Leopold, a modern example of the old leisure-for-nature theme
Started out in the US Forest Service
A founder of environmentalism and to the establishment of the USA’s park/forest infrastructure
THE OUTDOOR RECREACTION COMPROMISE
First part of 1900’s
Problem of Federal and State Public Lands- particularly in the USA West.
Conservationists vs Preservationists
Conservationists- U.S. Forest Service, practical, “realistic,” emphasized USE of public lands- for grazing, minning, forest products, oil, etc….
Preservationist- Park Service, more idealistic and even mystical- keep USA the USA by preserving its natural beauty and natural places- The natural soul of the USA
Turner Thesis- USA is made by the contact with nature in the FRONTIER HYPOTHESIS
The conservationist/preservationist division was partially resolved by outdoor recreation because outdoor recreation is
a humanly important -use- of wilderness at the that is relatively non- destructive.
Both preservationists and conservationists support recreational use of natural spaces.
Case in point- Hetch, Hetchy reservoir and dam
Now, similar things are happening with tourism- ECOTOURISM
Human use does not have to mean “development.”
Leopold’s central point-
economic values conflict with intrinsic values found in nature
Leopold asks; “what is the price of economic progress in terms of non-pecuniary values?”
He posits a "LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS OF PROGRESS”
“Progress diminishes nature”
Roots of modern ideas about nature found in the ABRAHAMIC CONCEPT OF LAND
Leopold proposes a dichotomy- COMMUNITY VS COMMODITY
To remedy the modern destruction of nature, a new relationship with the land (nature) is necessary. Instead of thinking of nature as a commodity, humans must lean to think of nature in terms of community- to accept the reality of the LAND-MAN COMMUNITY
The alternative is destruction of nature and of course, since we are part of and dependent on nature, destruction of ourselves.
Rachael Carson recognized this long ago- SILENT SPRING (DDT).
This critique goes back a long way- from John Stewart Mill (1859) to The Club of Rome
INFINITE HUMAN GROWTH (POPULATION AND ECONOMIC) IN A FINITE WORLD IS IMPOSSIBLE- SOONER OR LATER WE WILL REACH THE LIMIT OF GROWTH NAD THERE WILL BE HELL TO PAY!!
ECONOMCI MATURITY
To forestall that fateful day, Leopold wrote “A Sand County Almanac”
A Sand County Almanac
The Sand County Almanac is arranged by the months of the year, starting with January and ending with December- that is why Leopold called it an almanac.
Typical of nature books- this seasonal organization.
Leopold's real "Sand County" is in Wisconsin- on the Wisconsin River, up around the Dells.
But the "Round River" he talks about is mythical- a metaphor for the LAND-MAN COMMUNICTY
Section two of the -Sand County Almanac, "The Quality of Landscape," is organized by: states.
Two “nature” human experiences- time and space…..
Leopold uses imagery to good effect. For example his "Anthropomorphic" story of the Mice-under-the-snow
Again, he does this to show the kinship of humans and the natural world…
Wonder, imagination and memory are centrally important in Leopold's understanding of nature.
Remember Skinner’s image of “Leisure is our levitation,” in
which Skinner recognizes the limits of science and rationality (taking care of
logical needs) and the importance of other human faculties—with Beatrice.
Here is a good list of those faculties that transcend reason.
How do we make a change?
Leopold has faith in EDUCATION
But a special kind of education- EXPERIENTIAL EDUCATION
Nature, the open book, is the best teacher of all.
Leopold's ideas about ownership of the land. Opposes the Abrahamic view of ownership, in favor of his communal idea. We (humans, animals, and the land) are all in it together- we are all renters with an ethical obligation to the future, and as stewards of nature. Remember the image of Leopold sitting out at his picnic table, listing bird songs before dawn.
What does nature have of value for us humans?
1. A visual feast- example, the Silphium is a wild, flowering plant.
2. Leopold thinks that modern life is dulling the senses and the very awareness of life. Marcuse’s “ONE DEMENSIONAL MAN.” Nature holds the possibility for a renewal-- for the expansion and enrichment of life.
Other Images
The Colorado River at its delta
snakes are for themselves
Thinking like a mountain
Both Leopold and Henry David Thoreau thought that "in wilderness is the salvation of man."
EXPERIENTIAL EDUCATION
Leopold sees outdoor recreation as having five components.
1. Isolation
2. Sense of Husbandry
3. Taking of Trophies
4. Fresh air and change of scene
Perception of the natural process
