INTRODUCTION

The Household Economy of a Prehistoric Horticultural Homestead from the Glenwood Culture of the Great Plains will be an in-depth archaeological report by an interdisciplinary research team on the Wall Ridge site. Wall Ridge (13ML176) is an example of a dispersed homestead consisting of a Central Plains tradition earthlodge. Located in the Loess Hills of southwest Iowa (Figure 1), the Wall Ridge site was excavated in 1984 by the Iowa Archeological Society field school under the direction of Shirley Schermer, Office of the State Archaeologist of Iowa (Schermer 1984, 1987). The work was sponsored by the Office of the State Archaeologist and the Mills County Engineer's Office under the general supervision of Joseph A. Tiffany, who served as Principal Investigator on the project.

The Glenwood culture stands alone as the only major prehistoric culture in the region which is still virtually unstudied from an integrated economic and paleoecological perspective. The Wall Ridge site was the first Glenwood earthlodge carefully excavated with stratigraphic control, fine screening, and extensive soil sampling from the present ground surface to the floor and sub-floor pits, providing the data base needed for an integrated paleoecological study. This report addresses: 1) paleoecological reconstruction of the site locale; 2) the subsistence base and the relationships between the site economy and the local environment; 3) stratigraphic analysis of house construction and maintenance techniques and post-occupational events and processes; 4) spatial organization within the household; and 5) regional comparisons with other groups in the Central Plains tradition. As an interdisciplinary study, various data sets are integrated and used in several waysfor modeling the site setting, studying resource distribution and use, evaluating data for evidence of climatic change and subsistence activities, and understanding household organization. These results are viewed within the framework of previously proposed models for late prehistoric intensive horticulturists to test their validity for dispersed household systems.

The proposed report addresses seven research problems pertaining to the study of dispersed horticulturists. These issues are part of a larger theoretical framework exploring the economic systems and adaptational patterns of Great Plains horticulturists. The seven research problems are: 1) seasonality, 2) duration of occupation, 3) size and composition of the resident group, 4) economic/subsistence activities, 5) resource stress, 6) intersocietal relations, and 7) comparison with other maize-based horticulturists.

PURPOSE OF INVESTIGATIONS

The Wall Ridge site was found in 1984 on a reconnaissance survey for prospective borrow pits for a local roads project in Mills County, Iowa (Perry 1983, 1984). This work was conducted by the Office of the State Archaeologist under the auspices of an annual contract with the Iowa Department of Transportation. Limited testing, consisting of 32 posthole tests, identified the presence of a Glenwood culture earthlodge site. While planning further site research pursuant to the National Historic Preservation Act, federal funding for the road project including the Wall Ridge borrow pit was dropped. Because of the importance of the site, the Office of the Mills County Engineer joined with the Office of the State Archaeologist of The University of Iowa in a cooperative Memorandum of Understanding wherein the State Archaeologist's office was awarded $5,505 to excavate the site with volunteer assistance prior to its destruction. The Office of the Mills County Engineer also provided surveying assistance, heavy equipment, and operators. Shirley Schermer and Joseph A. Tiffany, both then of the Office of the State Archaeologist of Iowa, served as Project Director and Principal Investigator respectively for the excavation program.

Excavation of the Wall Ridge site was carefully controlled from the ground surface to sub-surface pits for one-half of the house. Heavy machinery was used to remove several feet of post-occupation colluvial overburden for the other half, but fine screening of the archaeological matrix and flotation sample collection were employed throughout the excavation and detailed stratigraphic observations were made (Figure 3). When completely excavated, a typical Central Plains earthlodge 9-m square was exposed (Figure 2) as well as a central hearth and nine subsurface storage pits, four of which were bell-shaped. Only the entryway was not found.

While the excavation only lasted five weeks, sixty-one volunteers, the majority of whom were participants in the Office of State Archaeologist-supervised Iowa Archeological Society Field School, took part in the excavation, contributing an estimated 1,650 hours to the project. A staff field and laboratory assistant were present throughout the project.The Iowa State Preserves Advisory Board contributed $500 toward the project. A donation of $1,000 was made by a private individual. Additionally, the Office of the State Archaeologist and The University of Iowa provided $1,500 of contributed effort. The Iowa Public Broadcasting Network featured the Wall Ridge excavation as part of a series entitled ``Iowa: Land Between Two Rivers,'' which aired statewide in 1985 and has been rebroadcast frequently.

From 1984 to the present, work on Wall Ridge has focused on processing, inventorying, cataloging, identifying, and describing the material culture and floral and faunal remains from the site. Over 4000 volunteer hours have been contributed toward laboratory processing. Analysis on a volunteer basis by professional researchers and their students has been ongoing on the Wall Ridge site material since 1984. Work has been under the overall supervision of Schermer and Tiffany, and more recently William Green, State Archaeologist of Iowa. The lack of substantial funding for completion of analysis has already stretched the project over an 8-year period.

In 1987, the Wall Ridge data were discussed in six papers in a symposium on current research on the Central Plains, held at the annual Plains Anthropological Conference (Billeck 1987; Green 1987a; Hirst 1987; Hudson 1987; Lensink 1987; Schermer 1987). In 1988, Green received a grant of $4,981 from the Iowa Science Foundation (a unit of the Iowa Academy of Science) to conduct a preliminary interdisciplinary application of environmental archaeology to prehistoric western Iowa using the Wall Ridge site data. Results of the Iowa Science Foundation project (Green 1989, 1990) provide information on the subsistence economy of the site's inhabitants and on the site's environmental context. Based on initial analyses by several researchers, Green (1990) reports: 1) a general model of mid-19th century vegetation in the site vicinity based on GLO records; 2) examination of 1,300 terrestrial gastropods representing 27 species which indicate a shift from a droughty local habitat during occupation to a moister, more heavily vegetated setting after abandonment; 3) 13,000 fish remains suggest heavy exploitation by several means of the nearby Missouri floodplain system; 4) molluscs are not abundant, but bivalves were apparently collected from all nearby aquatic zones; 5) 715 avian specimens recovered represent 73 individual birds and 27 species; 6) charcoal identifications indicate primary use of elm and ash for firewood; and 7) other charred plant remains include abundant maize, which has been found in every analyzed sample, as well as the first report of little barley for the central or northern Plains.

THE GLENWOOD CULTURE

The Glenwood culture is a unit of the Nebraska phase or variant of the Central Plains tradition. Throughout the Central Plains by about A.D. 1000 there existed a series of settled farming communities whose residents built substantial earthlodge houses. The archaeological remains of these communities found along both sides of the Missouri River in eastern Nebraska, southwestern Iowa, northwestern Missouri, and northeastern Kansas are grouped into what is called the Nebraska culture or phase. Similar sites in an area extending from northern Kansas across central Nebraska west to Colorado are referred to as Upper Republican. The Smoky Hill phase is represented by sites throughout central Kansas, and sites representing a more recently defined Pomona phase are found in eastern Kansas. All of these phases belong to what archaeologists have named the Central Plains tradition (Wedel 1959, 1978). These contemporary cultures of the Central Plains tradition may share a common cultural ancestry and exhibit a number of very similar characteristics, but they differ sufficiently to be separated into distinct groups. Although the historic Pawnee are widely believed to have roots in the Central Plains tradition, the exact ancestral relationships of these prehistoric Central Plains variants to the Pawnee or other historic tribes are still unclear (Grange 1968; Wedel 1938, 1978).

Over 70 recorded Central Plains earthlodges in the Glenwood locality of southern Iowa represent a fully- developed expansion of Nebraska phase people into the area ca. A.D. 10501225 (Zimmerman 1977b:125). Field and archival research in the 1990s has increased that number to approximately 240 lodges or probable lodges (OSA site files; Billeck 1992b).These sites are dispersed in a settlement pattern common for the Nebraska phase, and they contain the full range of reported material culture for the Nebraska phase. The Glenwood ``culture'' had a settlement pattern of individual farmsteads scattered along ridge summits, low terraces, and slopes of the valley walls of major interior drainages in the locality (Pony Creek, Keg Creek, and Horse Creek), and along the Missouri valley wall in the Western Loess Hills of southwest Iowa. There are clusters of Glenwood earthlodge sites where larger alluvial features are found in the locality such as the confluence of Keg and Horse Creeks or on lower, broader ridge summits and divides. One site cluster facing the Missouri valley is called the Kullbom ``village,'' but such clusters may represent re-use of preferred areas by kin-based groups over time and not villages per se.

FIELD EXCAVATION METHODS

The goal of this report is to provide a comprehensive look at the household economy of a dispersed homestead of the Nebraska culture and compare this economic adaptation to other horticultural groups from the Plains, Midwest, and elsewhere with both dispersed and nucleated settlement patterns.

The Wall Ridge site is the only Glenwood earthlodge site to be excavated from the ground surface to sub- surface features utilizing fine screening (¼-inch mesh) of the matrix and stratigraphic correlation and control. Detailed excavation records provide location of all artifacts by horizontal excavation units within each 10-cm stratigraphic level. All diagnostic artifacts were piece plotted.

Soil samples of uniform size (10 x 10 x 10 cm; 1 liter) from all stratigraphic units and from the fill of all pit features were collected for recovery of floral and microfaunal remains. Additionally, a 0.8 x 1.57 m soil column extending from the modern ground surface to 20 cm below the floor of the Wall Ridge house basin was collected. This column was positioned to avoid all visible intrusions or disturbances, and was intended to sample the gastropod fauna associated with site occupation and the subsequent deposition of fill within and finally over the house basin.

Materials were washed, cataloged, and inventoried by site provenience. Over 60,000 specimens have been cataloged. All soil samples were subjected to water screening and water flotation techniques for microfauna and floral data recovery. Nearly 500 liters of house basin feature fill were sampled through flotation using a No. 60 screen (0.25-mm mesh) for recovery of small seeds and snails.

As a part of general analysis and presentation of excavation results, the final report provides a description of all cultural features and cultural and biotic materials. An analysis of the vertical and horizontal patterning of the artifacts within the household is also provided.

SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH

Work on the Nebraska phase has been more intensive and sustained than on other Iowa prehistoric manifestations and has resulted in many of the publications cited in the Bibliography. Several of these reports have excellent historical summaries of Glenwood locality research (Anderson 1975; Benn 1986; Blakeslee and Caldwell 1979; Green 1990; Morrow 1995; Perry 1987a,b; Zimmerman 1976).

Early excavations, many of which were of a salvage nature or conducted by amateurs 30 to 60 years ago, often ignored stratigraphy or intra-site data relationships within the lodge basins. Brown published the only site profiles of Glenwood earthlodges (Brown 1967:56, 67). These sites were excavated by shoveling and troweling in 6-inch levels with no fine screening, and the profile descriptions are of a very general nature. The majority of the excavations conducted under contract with the National Park Service or the Iowa Department of Transportation in the late 1960s and early 1970s have never been adequately reported (Hotopp 1978a). Earthlodges dug under the auspices of highway salvage archaeology after 1971 employed fine-screening (¼ inch) of the archaeological matrix with some judgmental use of water-screening through 1/16-inch mesh screen of house and feature fill (Bardwell 1981). These better sampled sites produced abundant size-graded floral and faunal remains (Adair 1988; Cutler and Blake 1976; Nickel n.d.), but flotation and screening through 40-mesh or finer screen, which is needed to recover small but environmentally important data such as snails, fish bone and seeds (Munson 1981; Styles 1981), were not used even though these techniques were known and available to researchers at the time. With such limited data collection, research on the Glenwood culture to date has focused primarily on cultural-historical issues, floor plans, and limited paleoecological reconstruction. More recent work through has employed more complete recovery techniques (e.g, Bozell and Ludwickson 1994)

Temporal/Processual Models

Models of Glenwood cultural development can be summarized as follows. Anderson's (1961) initial study defined three sequential phases in the Glenwood locality based on a ceramic seriation which showed a general trend through time from collared to plain wares. Ordination of the sites revealed a geographic trend in the locality based on ceramic changes which from early to late and generally south to north, Anderson (1961) termed the Keg Creek, Pony Creek, and Kullbom phases. Using subsequent radiocarbon dates and data from highway salvage excavations in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Zimmerman (1977b) and Hotopp (1978a,b, 1982) showed that although sites with predominantly collared wares were generally earlier than sites where plain wares predominated, there was no apparent linear relationship supporting a geographic occupational sequence. In fact, radiocarbon dates suggested several sites in Pony and Keg Creek were apparently contemporaneous. One interpretation of this phenomenon is that groups were apparently moving throughout the locality during the length of the occupation. Current research based on Wall Ridge pottery (Billeck 1987) suggests that two or three groups continuously and contemporaneously occupied the locality along the major drainages. In this model, Anderson's phases are not sequential but generally coeval and spatially discrete in nature. The changes in ceramic popularity evident at many sites suggest two or more kin- based groups occupied the locality.

Glenwood earthlodge sites late in the occupation sequence (Kullbom phase) contain Correctionville-Blue Earth-style Oneota shell tempered pottery as well as locally made pottery with Oneota decorative motifs. Even though the Glenwood occupation spans the Stirling phase, the time of maximum Cahokia-based Mississippian influence in the upper Midwest (Emerson and Lewis 1991), Glenwood sites show no evidence for Stirling phase interaction (i.e., Powell Plain or Ramey Incised trade pottery). Exotic materials in the Glenwood locality and the Nebraska phase are of a generalized nature and point strongly to Caddoan sources (McNerney 1987; Tiffany 1991:188189). These data suggest that the Glenwood occupation and perhaps the Nebraska phase expansion is both later and shorter in duration than the radiocarbon dates suggest (Zimmerman 1977b:126; Hotopp 1978b).

Several attempts have been made to explain the settlement pattern of the Nebraska phase which, while exhibiting instances of apparent nucleated hamlets, is marked by a high proportion of dispersed households scattered across the landscape. Anderson and Zimmerman (1976:152) argue that the dispersed earthlodge pattern of the Glenwood locality represents an adaptation to the rugged Loess Hills landscape where level ground is at a premium and is confined to the few interior drainage systems and the Missouri valley floor. Alternately, they propose that houses may be situated so as to reduce the distance to wild food resourcesnuts from trees on the loess ridges and floodplain plants and animals from the Missouri valley (also see Hotopp 1978:113). Krause (1970:110111) makes a similar argument for the Upper Republican homesteads, emphasizing that a dispersed population can more efficiently utilize solitary game animals and collectable wild foods, mainly aquatic animals, by reducing competition for local resources. He proposes that the transition from hamlets to isolated homesteads was ultimately induced by the shift to a cooler, drier climatic regime after A.D. 1250 (Baerreis and Bryson 1965) which made maize agriculture more risky and prompted an increased reliance on game animals and aquatic foods. Finally, Zimmerman (1977:43) has suggested that the dispersed pattern in the Glenwood locality may reflect a pioneer-type homestead situation associated with a peaceful, initial settlement of a previously unoccupied area.

Paleoecological Research

Much of Glenwood research has focused on cultural-historical issues and house types and their distribution. In contrast, the proposed project adopts the broad framework of environmental archaeology, the goal of which is to use human ecological data from prehistoric communities ``to determine the interrelationship between culture and environment'' (Butzer 1982:5; see also Baerreis 1970b, and King and Graham 1981). This kind of paleoecological approach has been applied to western Iowa archaeological research for almost 30 years on a wide variety of sites representing the Archaic, Woodland, Great Oasis, and Mill Creek cultures (Anderson and Semken 1980; Baerreis [editor] 1970; Benn 1990; Bettis and Thompson 1982; Bryson and Baerreis 1968; Dallman 1983; Tiffany 1982, 1983, 1988; Zalucha 1982). The Glenwood culture stands alone as the only major prehistoric culture in the region which is still virtually unstudied from an integrated paleoecological perspective.

Paleoecological research of the kind common to western Iowa archaeology is also uncommon for Central Plains tradition studies in general. Wood's (1969) seminal publication, Two House Sites in the Central Plains: An Experiment in Archaeology, represents the collaborative effort of several scholars and is the only widely- published attempt at the kind of comprehensive paleoecological study proposed for the Wall Ridge site conducted on Central Plains tradition sites. One of the houses studied was from the Upper Republican variant, the other from the Nebraska variant (sic phase). Of the two houses examined, the Upper Republican variant house was much more thoroughly analyzed.

The goal was to extract ``as much as possible from a limited field endeavor'' (Wood 1969:2). Neither site was subjected to fine screening of the archaeological matrix. The excavation of the Nuzum, Nebraska variant site, was hurried. Definition of the structure was difficult and data recovery was limited (Wood 1969:6367). The Mowry Bluff Upper Republican site was excavated with shovels and a front-end loader to remove the deposits above the floor; the fill over the floor was removed by shovel skimming (Wood 1969:6). All the sub-floor features were fine screened, however, and numerous matrix samples were removed for water screening and water flotation (Wood 1969:6). Beyond Wood's comments, detailed reporting of the methods used and sampling procedures and sample sizes employed is largely absent. Baerreis' (1969:51) discussion of gastropods from the site describes the size of screen mesh he used (.420 mm) and the sampling methods he employed. However, the discussion of the faunal remains states only that the materials were from a sample which was water screened through a ``fine wire mesh'' (Falk 1969:44). Generally, excellent data are presented, but as Wedel (1970) noted, the quality and completeness of each component paper for both sites is uneven. The site stratigraphy was briefly described, but the cultural deposits are not correlated with the sediments. Only brief comments are made in some of the reports on the distribution and internal stratigraphic relationships among the recovered artifacts.

Wood's Two House Sites . . . study was a pioneering effort in paleoecological research at the time, and it put Central Plains research on a par with then current state-of-the-art studies on Initial Middle Missouri sites in northwest Iowa and eastern South Dakota by using approaches and methods and by testing theoretical assumptions then in use by researchers in Mesoamerica and Southeast Asia investigating neolithic communities and the origins of agriculture. Even though the study met with some criticism (Wedel 1970), it represented a major methodological breakthrough which unfortunately has not been consistently followed up in Central Plains archaeology since its publication. Bozell's (1991) recent faunal analysis of an Upper Republican phase site in Nebraska represents an exception to this trend, but provides no additional information on the Nebraska phase.

In the Glenwood locality, some research has been done on the ecological parameters of site location and modeling of past vegetative resources (Anderson and Zimmerman 1976; Tiffany and Abbott 1982). No comprehensive studies have been done, however, to model site environments at the time of occupation or to establish and quantify the nature of the Glenwood subsistence economy. Important classes of materials such as molluscan, fish, crustacean, avian, and floral remains have yet to be reported in detail from a Glenwood earthlodge site. The most thorough analyses to date have focused on mammalian remains, particularly small mammals (Bardwell 1981; Eschelman 1970; Johnson 1972; Semken and Falk 1987). Non-cultural mammalian and gastropod faunas from the Glenwood area have provided critical comparative and baseline data for environmental reconstruction (Fay 1978; Frest and Dickson 1986; Rhodes 1984; Rhodes and Semken 1986). Although general pre-settlement vegetation zones have been modeled for part of the Glenwood locality (Anderson and Zimmerman 1976; Johnson 1972; Perry 1987a; Tiffany and Abbott 1982), local plant composition has not been investigated in detail for any particular site, thereby limiting interpretation of human paleoecological patterns.

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	1979	Oneota Culture in Northwest Iowa. Report 12. Office of the State Archaeologist, Iowa City.
Hirst, K. Kris
	1987	Fresh Water Musssel-Shell Tools Found at Glenwood Sites, Iowa. Paper presented at the 45th Annual Plains Anthropological Conference, Columbia, Missouri.
	1988a	Late Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell Use. Paper presented at the Midwest Archaeological Conference, Urbana, Illinois.
	1988b	Mussels from 13ML176. Paper presented at the Quaternary Studies Brown Bag, Department of Geology, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
	1988c	A Typology for Nebraska Phase Shell Tools. Paper presented at the 100th Session, Iowa Academy of Science, Iowa State University, Ames.
	1989	The Usefulness of Analyses of Freshwater Clamshells at Nonmidden Sites. Paper presented at the 47th Annual Plains Anthropological Conference, Sioux Falls, South Dakota.
	1990a	Shell Games: Identifying Plant Deposits on Freshwater Mussel Shells. Paper presented at the Office of the State Archaeologist Staff Seminar, Iowa City.
	1990b	Shell Games: Silica Deposits on Naiad Shell Corn Shellers. Poster paper, coauthored by Robert G. Thompson. Thirteenth Annual Society of Ethnobiology Conference, Phoenix, Arizona.
	1990c	Tracing the Use of Freshwater Naiad Shells as Prehistoric Implements through Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis. Poster paper, co-authored by Robert G. Thompson and Katherine S. Walters. XIIth International Congress for Electron Microscropy, Seattle, Washington.
	1991	Shell Games: Freshwater Naiad Shells as Raw Material for Tools. Fifty-sixth Annual Meeting, Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Hodder, J. and C. Orton
	1987	Spatial Analysis in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Hotopp, John A.
	1972	The Iowa Extension of the Central Plains Tradition. Paper presented at the 30th Plains Conference, Lincoln, Nebraska.
	1978a	Settlement Patterns, Structures, and Temporal Placement of the Central Plains Tradition in Iowa. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
	1978b	Glenwood: A Contemporary View. In The Central Plains Tradition: Internal Developments and External Relationships, edited by Donald J. Blakeslee, pp. 109-133. Report 11, Office of the State Archaeologist, Iowa City.
	1982	Some Observations on the Central Plains Tradition in Iowa. In Plains Indian Studies: A Collection of Essays in Honor of John C. Ewers and Waldo R. Wedel, edited by Douglas H. Ubelaker and Herman J. Viola, pp. 173-192. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology No. 30. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
Hotopp, John A., R. Sanders Rhodes, III, and Holmes A. Semken
	1973	Waubonsie Watershed Survey. Report to the National Park Service, Contract Nos. 2-920-P2-0043 and CX-6000-3-0038. Copy on file, National Park Service, Lincoln, and Office of the State Archaeologist, Iowa City.
Hudson, LuAnn
	1987	Activities Suggested by the Bone and Antler Tool Assemblages at 13ML176, a Glenwood Earthlodge. Paper presented at the 45th Plains Conference, Columbia, Missouri.
Ives, John C.
	1955	Glenwood Ceramics. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 4(3-4):2-32.
Johnson, Allen W., and Timothy Earle
	1987	The Evolution of Human Societies. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.
Johnson, Paul C.
	1972	Mammalian Remains Associated with Nebraska Phase Earth Lodges in Mills County, Iowa. Unpublished M.S. thesis, Department of Geology, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
King, Frances B., and Russell W. Graham
	1981	Effects of Ecological and Paleoecological Patterns on Subsistence and Paleoenvironmental Reconstructions. American Antiquity 46:128-142.
Krause, Richard A.
	1970	Aspects of Adaptation among Upper Republican Subsistence Cultivators. In Pleistocene and Recent Environments of the Central Great Plains, edited by Wakefield Dort and J. Knox Jones, Jr., pp. 103-115. Special Publication 3. Department of Geology, University of Kansas, Lawrence.
Lehmer, D. J.
	1971	Middle Missouri Archaeology. Anthropological Papers 1. National Park Service, Washington, D.C.
Lensink, Stephen C.
	1984	A Quantitative Model of Central-Place Foraging Among Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Iowa, Iowa City. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.
	1986	Investigation at 13WS61--The Sweeting Site, Summary. In Archaeological Investigations along the F-518 Corridor: Phase III Mitigations at 13WS61, 13WS65, 13WS122, 13WS126, edited by Stephen C. Lensink, pp. 112-114. Iowa Quaternary Studies Contribution 9. University of Iowa, Iowa City.
	1987	Lithic Resources Utilization at 13ML176, A Nebraska Phase Earthlodge in the Glenwood Locality, Iowa Paper presented at the 45th Plains Conference, Columbia, Missouri.
	1988	Subterranean Storage in Mill Creek and Nebraska Phase Sites in Iowa. Paper presented at the 46th Annual Plains Conference, Wichita, Kansas.
McConaughy, Mark A.
	1986	The Rench Site Late Woodland/Mississippian Farming Hamlet from the Central Illinois River Valley: Food for Thought. Paper presented at the 51st annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans. Contribution No. 87. Archaeological and Quaternary Studies Program, Illinois State Museum, Springfield
McConaughy, Mark A., Claude V. Jackson, and Francis B. King
	1985	Two Early Mississippian Period Structures from the Rench Site (11P4), Peoria County, Illinois. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 10:171-193.
McNerney, Michael J.
	1987	The Effigy Complex of the Nebraska Phase and the Problem of Nebraska Phase-Mississippian Relationships. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 34:22-50.
Mehrer, Mark W.
	1988	The Settlement Patterns and Social Power of Cahokia's Hinterland Households. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana
Milner, George R.
	1986	Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of Central Mississippi River Valley. American Antiquity 51:227-238.
Milner, George R., Eve Anderson, and Virginia G. Smith
	1991	Warfare in Late Prehistoric West-Central Illinois. American Antiquity 56:581-603.
Monks, Gregory G.
	1981	Seasonality Studies. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 4, edited by Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 177-240. Academic Press, New York.
Morrow, Toby
	1995	Phase III Excavations at 13ML118 and 13ML175, Mills County, Iowa. Contract Completion Report 469. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
Munson, Patrick J.
	1981	Note on the Use and Misuse of Water-Separation (``Flotation'') for the Recovery of Small-Scale Botanical Remains. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 6:123-126.
Naroll, Raoul
	1962	Floor Area and Settlement Population. American Antiquity 27:587-589.
Nickel, Robert K.
	n.d.	Botanical Remains from Sites in Mills County, Iowa. Ms. on file, Office of the State Archaeologist, Iowa City.
Orr, Ellison J.
	1953a	Report of an Archaeological Survey of Mills County, Iowa. Iowa Archaeological Reports Vol. 10. Effigy Mounds National Monument, McGregor, Iowa.
	1953b	Sundry Archaeological Papers and Memoranda, vol. 12. Ms. on file, Effigy Mounds National
	1963	Iowa Archaeological Reports 19341939 with an Evaluation and Index by Marshall McKusick. Archives of Archaeology, Society for American Archaeology. Microcard Series No. 20. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Perry, Michael J.
	1983	RS-6026(4) Mills County Local Roads. Project Completion Report 7(113). Office of the State Archaeologist, Iowa City.
	1984	RS-6026(4) Mills County Local Systems Borrow Inspections. Letter report to Iowa Department of Transportation. Copy on file. Office of the State Archaeologist, Iowa City.
	1987	Phase II Test Excavations at Sites 13ML118, 13ML122, and 13ML175, Local Roads Project Rs- 6026(6), Mills County, Iowa. Project Completion Report 10(122). Office of the State Archaeologist, Iowa City.
	1987b	Recent Investigations in the Glenwood Locality, Iowa. Paper presented at the 45th Plains Conference, Columbia, Missouri.
Prior Jean C.
	1976	A Regional Guide to Iowa Landforms. Educational Series No. 3. Iowa Geological Survey, Iowa City.
Rhodes, R. Sanders, III
	1984	Paleoecology and Regional Paleoclimatic Implications of the Farmdalian Craigmile and Woodfordian Waubonsie Mammalian Local Faunas, Southwestern Iowa. Reports of Investigations No. 40. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.
Rhodes, R. Sanders, III, and Holmes A. Semken, Jr.
	1976	Paleontological Investigations within the Waubonsie Creek Watershed, Iowa. NTIS PB-260 767. Department of Geology, University of Iowa, Iowa City. Submitted to National Park Service, Denver. Copy on file, Department of Geology, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
	1986	Quaternary Biostratigraphy and Paleoecology of Fossil Mammals from the Loess Hills Region of Western Iowa. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 93:94-130.
Rowe, Paul R.
	1922	Decorative markings on some fragments of Indian pottery from Mills County, Iowa. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Sciences 29:53-9.
	1952a	Early Horizons of Mills County, Iowa. Part I, Evidences of Early Man. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 1(3):6-13.
	1952b	Early Horizons of Mills County, Iowa. Part II, Pre-Pottery Sites. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 2(1):3-10.
Schermer, Shirley J.
	1984	1984 Glenwood Excavation. Iowa Archeological Society Newsletter 112:4-5.
	1987	Excavating a Glenwood Earthlodge, 13ML176: An Overview. Paper presented at the 45th Plains Conference, Columbia, Missouri.
Semken, Holmes A., Jr., and Carl R. Falk
	1987	Late Pleistocene/Holocene Mammalian Faunas and Environmental Changes on the Northern Plains of the United States. In Late Quaternary Mammalian Biogeography and Environments of the Great Plains and Prairies, edited by Russell W. Graham, Holmes A. Semken, Jr., and Mary Ann Graham, pp. 176-313. Scientific Papers Vol. 22. Illinois State Museum, Springfield. 199?? [add article re. ML176]
Smith, Bruce D.
	1978	Prehistoric Patterns of Human Behavior: A Case Study in the Mississippi Valley. Academic Press, New York.
Spielmann, Katherine A.
	1982	Inter-Societal Food Acquisition among Egalitarian Societies: An Ecological Analysis of Plains/Pueblo Interaction in the American Southwest. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
	1983	Late Prehistoric Exchange between the Southwest and the Southern Plains. Plains Anthropologist 28:257-272
Stevenson, Katherine P.
	1985	Oneota Subsistence-Related Behavior in the Driftless Area: A Study of the Valley View Site near La Crosse, Wisconsin. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Styles, Bonnie W.
	1981	Faunal Exploitation and Resource Selection: Early Late Woodland Subsistence in the Lower Illinois Valley. Scientific Papers No. 3. Archaeological Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois.
Tandarich, John P., and Loren N. Horton
	1976	A Memorial Bibliography of Charles R. Keyes and Ellison J. Orr. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 23:45-143.
Theler, James L.
	1987	Woodland Tradition Economic Strategies: Animal Resource Utilization in Southwestern Wisconsin and Northeastern Iowa. Report 17. Office of the State Archeologist, Iowa City.
	1990	Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel (Naiad) Assemblages from Southwestern Iowa. American Malacological Bulletin 7:127-130.
Tiffany, Joseph A.
	1981	The Keyes Archaeological Collection: A Finder's Guide. Iowa State Historical Department, Division of the State Historical Society, Iowa City.
	1983	Chan-ya-ta: A Mill Creek Village. Report 15. Office of the State Archaeologist, Iowa City.
	1991	Models of Mississippian Culture History in the Western Prairie Peninsula: A Perspective from Iowa. In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, pp. 183-192. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Tiffany, Joseph A. (editor)
	1982	A Preliminary Report on the Arthur Site, East Okoboji Lake, Iowa. Research Papers 7(1). Office of the State Archaeologist, Iowa City.
Tiffany, Joseph A., and Larry R. Abbott
	1982	Site Catchment Analysis: Applications to Iowa Archaeology. Journal of Field Archaeology 9:313-322.
Tiffany, Joseph A., Duane C. Anderson, Shirley J. Schermer, James L. Theler, Douglas W. Owsley, E. Arthur Bettis, III, and Dean M. Thompson.
	1988	The Hanging Valley Site (13HR28): A Stratified Woodland Burial Locale in Western Iowa. Plains Anthropologist 33:219-259.
Wedel, Waldo R.
	1938	The Direct Historical Approach in Pawnee Archaeology. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection Vol. 97, No. 7. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
	1959	An Introduction to Kansas Archaeology. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 174. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
	1961	Prehistoric Man on the Great Plains. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
	1970	Along the Trail--Some Observations on ``Two House Sites in the Central Plains: An Experiment in Archaeology.'' Nebraska History 51:225-252.
	1978	The Prehistoric Plains. In Ancient Native Americans, edited by Jesse D. Jennings, pp. 183-219. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.
	1979	House Floors and Native Settlement Populations in the Central Plains. Plains Anthropologist 24:85-98.
	1986	Central Plains Prehistory. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Wood, W. Raymond (editor)
	1969	Two House Sites in the Central Plains: An Experiment in Archaeology. Plains Anthropologist Memoir 6.
Zalucha, L. Anthony
	1982	Methodology in Paleoethnobotany: A Study in Vegetational Reconstruction Dealing with the Mill Creek Culture of Northwestern Iowa. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Zimmerman, Larry J.
	1971	The Glenwood Taxonomic Problem. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
	1976	Archaeological Research in the Glenwood Locality: Changing Perspectives. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 83:121-124.
	1977a	The Glenwood Local Sequence: A Reexamination. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 24:62-83.
	1977b	Prehistoric Locational Behavior: A Computer Simulation. Report 10. Office of the State Archaeologist, Iowa City.

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