PICS Videoguidelines

compiled by
Rick Altman, Deborah Bjornstad, Rebecca Bohde, Anny Ewing,
Sue Otto, James Pusack, Patrick Shoemaker, and Susan Skoglund.

The following guidelines should stimulate your work with video in language teaching. They have been developed through the joint efforts of the PICS staff and expand upon the insights of many others who have worked creatively with video in language learning. We have chosen a list-like format that should encourage teachers to scan quickly through the pages to find the argument or technique that best fits their immediate needs. We hope it goes without further saying that these guidelines are not meant to be prescriptive, but provocative; they are ideas, suggestions, perspectives, fragments of a larger universe of possibilities. Please feel free to copy and distribute these suggestions.

A. Twelve Topics on Video in Language Learning

1. Who needs authentic foreign video?

2. How do I get started working with video?

3. What kind of preparation will help me get the most from a video sequence?

4. What kinds of activities and programs are most appropriate for beginners?

5. How can we get students involved in working with video?

6. How do you get students talking about the video?

7. How much video should I use at one time?

8. How can I help students overcome the urge to translate every word of the video?

9. How do you get at culture with video?

10. How can I work effectively with the news, which seems too difficult for American students and gets dated too quickly?

11. What should the teacher do in the video-oriented classroom?

12. What are the benefits of interactive video for the teacher and for the individual learner?

1. Who needs authentic foreign video?

• Language learners need it so they can:

~hear the language within a visible context,

~see the culture,

~acquire new knowledge,

~prepare for travel, and

~expand on knowledge gained via reading and travel.

• Language teachers need it so they can:

~extend the classroom,

~present culture effectively,

~build their students' listening skills (and their own),

~complement written texts,

~motivate students and themselves,

~have access to a rich body of knowledge,

~update their image of the target country and culture,

~provide interactive lab activities, and

~move naturally from listening to speaking or writing.

2. How do I get started working with video?

• Experiment with simple tasks on short segments at the beginning or intermediate level.
• Use video that is already supported by pedagogical materials.
• Experiment freely and frequently with video in class in order to build up your repertoire of techniques little by little.
• Consider using a balanced combination of broadcast TV (authentic foreign video) and specially-prepared programs created for language teaching (authentic foreign language via video).
• Find a colleague (not necessarily one who teaches the same language) who already works with video.
• Adapt your best techniques for building reading and speaking skills to your work with video.
• Exploit your expertise in literary and linguistic analysis to discover those elements of a video document that best lend themselves to creating a lively learning environment.
• Think of the learner's interaction with video as a form of problem-solving.
• Have faith in your students and in the extraordinary leaps they will make in comprehending authentic foreign video, once they have become familiar with the medium.
• Choose segments and programs that relate to topics or literary works already treated in class, rather than making video a self-contained unit.
• Spread your treatment of a video segment over several class periods.

3. What kind of preparation will help me get the most from a video sequence?

• Treat the video option as an integral part of your curriculum design, rather than just an afterthought or a change of pace from the normal routine.
• Devise a progression of preparation, presentation, and expansion activities; build a sequence of activities that progresses from recognition and identification, through recombination and recapitulation, to interpretation, synthesis, and evaluation.
• Create a whole-class lesson plan that uses three minutes of video for thirty minutes of class to conduct a variety of activities (see part C); or:
• Create a ten-minute class activity that uses one minute of video.
• Invent activities that exploit the image as much as the text; begin your preparation by watching the image before you know the text.
• Stress lively activities that focus the student's attention on selected elements rather than requiring detailed word-for-word comprehension.
• Build vocabulary and structures from difficult video sequences into preceding exercises and activities.

4. What kinds of activities and programs are most appropriate for beginners?

• Targeted listening helps beginning students to understand important aspects of even the most challenging video programs.
• Straightforward recognition tasks focus the learner's attention on material at or just above his or her current level (numbers, colors, dates, actions).
• Alternating between viewing and listening activities relieves the pressure on learners whose listening skills are weak.
• Programs in which the redundancy between the image and the text is high allow students to guess and verify meaning most reliably.
• Familiar genres and topics allow students to transfer real-world knowledge most readily to new video segments.
• Segments with simple story lines allow learners to focus on the main action and encourage them to risk ignoring the difficult detail.
• Programs created expressly for teaching beginners are often designed with built-in repetition to help strengthen listening skills and vocabulary.
• Even difficult programs often contain segments useful for beginning students; don't hesitate to use these short segments with students in the early stages of language learning.

5. How can we get students involved in working with video?

• Use video that will connect the problems and issues of their own lives to the activities of the classroom; find topics that provoke students to describe their personal situations.
• Put video into a motivating continuum of skill-getting and skill-using through the use of expansion activities such as role-playing and skit-writing.
• Give learners individualized control over difficult elements of the video via individual and small-group work in the language lab.
• Schedule regular small-group work during class time in order to lower the profile of the instructor and give students more opportunities to use the spoken language or to work collaboratively to discover meaning.
• Select materials and activities that have equal components of entertainment and edification.
• Identify subsegments of video that are brief enough to eliminate memory problems and that allow students to work intensively with the language through repeated viewings and focused tasks.
• Use video segments that highlight cultural differences to stimulate lively discussion.
• Use short segments whose content can be easily replayed and readily absorbed by the entire class.
• Choose familiar genres, such as commercials, and expand on them using skits to imitate or parody the genre; take care to avoid linguistic or cultural content that is too demanding.
• Seek out motivating videos that include young people and typical "characters" from the target culture speaking on camera; avoid announcers and politicians delivering speeches, which are often intimidating.

6. How do you get students talking about the video?

• Make sure students are comfortable with the vocabulary and the task.
• Avoid open-ended tasks that demand retelling of long sequences and that motivate only a few exceptional students while frustrating the rest.
• Use structured speaking activities based on printed guides or frequent freeze-frame/replay in order to allow even the weakest learner to move from listening/viewing to speaking.
• Create a non-threatening environment for uncorrected speaking via activities such as guessing content from images or predicting the content of the next segment.
• Use traditional teaching aids such as the map, the blackboard, and the overhead projector to clarify the meaning of words and the task expected of the student.
• Reassure students that they are on the right track by selecting video that has a high degree of repetition, redundancy between the image and the words, and printed signs or text within the images.
• Put control of the class in the hands of the students and give everyone a better chance to participate by assigning specific tasks to individuals, pairs, small groups, or teams.

7. How much video should I use at one time?

• When in doubt, use short segments and use them frequently.
• Look at the video composition techniques, such as changes in camera angle and scene, to find small useful chunks of video.
• If detailed understanding is desired, use only clips that can be shown several times.
• If longer segments are scheduled (documentaries or dramatic sequences), structure the learner's task so that the required level of comprehension is clear.
• Divide longer segments into subsegments; for each subsegment, progress through the three phases of preparation, presentation, and expansion.
• Use freeze-frame, video-without-audio, or visual fast-forward to compress length or temporarily eliminate difficult text as a step to full comprehension.
• Be ready to stop the video and check comprehension; replay if needed before continuing with the segment.

8. How can I help students overcome the urge to translate every word of the video?

• Remember that the transcript may be the teacher's friend, but it is the learner's enemy.
• Restrict word-for-word comprehension tasks to carefully selected speeches, paragraphs, or even individual sentences.
• Use activities that encourage students to become active listeners, guessers, predictors, and risk-takers in their listening.
• Establish the key (topic-related) vocabulary required for a segment; avoid the temptation to explain every idiom or elucidate "interesting" grammatical features.
• Devise global or focused comprehension tasks that encourage students to take risks in guessing at meaning from the visual and verbal context.

9. How do you get at culture with video?

• Select from the available wealth of video that abounds in scenes of everyday life, particularly in human interest features, documentaries, and entertainment shows.
• Use role-playing and situational improvisation to compare typical actions and values of two cultures, e.g., social behavior, preferences, dress.
• Compare and contrast similar genres of foreign and American video.
• Focus on the cultural differences that leap from the video screen whenever foreign customs are shown.
• Develop geography units around common types of programming, such as weather reports, news programs, and travelogues.
• Introduce the lexicon and the language functions related to travel, food, and meals using scenes from dramatic programs, detective shows, and soap operas.
• Exploit programs aimed at youth and children to show typical scenes from schools and problems of the educational system.
• Expand on human interest features, documentaries, and news clips to explore the role of men, women, and minorities in the target culture.
• Show documentaries and news about cultural and political figures.
• For the sake of motivation and variety, allow students to hear famous political or literary personages actually speaking the target language in short news clips, even when the image may not strongly reinforce the words.
• Show architectural monuments, geographic features, and scientific advances through newsreel-type features, stressing the visual component over the factual details.
• Schedule in-class or lab screenings of literary works available on video.

10. How can I work effectively with the news, which seems too difficult for American students and gets dated too quickly?

• Avoid news features that contain the announcer exclusively or primarily, since these clips are really just spoken transcript at its most difficult.
• Hesitate to use news stories that contain descriptions of complex issues (e.g., economic events, summit meetings) narrated over stock footage of conference tables, since such reports do not provide enough visual context to help establish meaning.
• Keep in mind that hard news on political developments may be difficult because students lack appropriate background knowledge.
• Focus comprehension tasks on discrete factual items, such as dates, names, places, rather than on overall significance.
• Simplify and explain the content through guided comprehension tasks.
• Work with individual visual images of news clips and relate them to students' knowledge of the world.
• Seek out news programs that stress human interest stories or the individual impact of major (or minor) events, since the language of such reports is often simple and the content will not become dated too quickly.
• Place a high value on news programs that use graphics to explain complex processes.
• Stimulate lively discussion by using reports on events in the U.S., which often contain provocative perspectives and productive inaccuracies.
• Favor reports on familiar topics (American events or recent major world events), which are made more comprehensible by virtue of students' prior knowledge.

11. What should the teacher do in the video-oriented classroom?

• Select motivating and appropriate materials.
• Focus student attention on key elements.
• Set tasks that can be accomplished comfortably.
• Choreograph optimal movement between the sound and images of the video and the conversation, reading, and writing of the classroom.
• Highlight significant content.
• Provide opportunities for student speaking and writing.
• Move step-by-step from a high level of teacher control to highly learner-centered production.
• Maintain a good sense of humor, even in the face of technical slip-ups.
• Remain aware of student comprehension levels and alert for temporary lapses in understanding or motivation.

12. What are the benefits of interactive video for the teacher and for the individual learner?

• Digital video offers instantaneous access to high quality video and audio, with major advantages in the accessibility of subsegments from a longer video program.
• Control over still frame images is absolute.
• Switching between video-only, audio-only, and full video modes is greatly simplified.
• Replay of video on a sentence-by-sentence basis can be provided.
• Software that provides quick display of the text for any sentence or other aids to comprehension can streamline in-class activities and intensive lab work with video.
• Computer-based interactive video tasks in the language lab can build specific listening skills on an individualized basis.
• Both weak and strong students can benefit from the efficiency of fingertip control over sentences, dialogues, scenes, and segments.
• Computer control makes it possible for the learner to benefit from the non-linear presentation of program elements in activities such as simulations and problem-solving.

B. Dimensions of Interactivity

It is 9 p.m. and you are about to prepare tomorrow's 9 a.m. language class. You have already selected an inherently motivating video segment for your class. If you are working under ideal conditions, then your video player and monitor repose conveniently on your desk next to your microcomputer; the transcript of the video segment is even available for manipulation in a window on your computer screen. If you are working under more typical conditions, your pencil and remote control are poised for action.

Now what? How can we devise a helpful set of practical guidelines for the complex process by which an experienced teacher decides to create classroom teaching materials? Who will interact with what?

Obviously, the answer will depend on many factors:

• your students' abilities;
• your own course objectives and teaching methodologies;
• the opportunities available for students to work with video by viewing, listening, writing, or reading outside of class;
• the content and nature of the video you have selected;
• and your students' previous experience with authentic video materials.

The goal is simple: to develop certain skills by exploiting the right aspects of the video. Yet the most experienced developer of video-based teaching materials can often benefit from a systematic approach to finding the ideal group of activities, especially when a given segment seems a bit intractable or when familiar routine threatens to stifle creativity on the part of both teachers and learners.

One approach is to view the spectrum of possibilities as a matrix, beginning with preparation, going through listening and viewing activities, and concluding with follow-up activities. This should be familiar to most teachers from pre-reading, reading, and post-reading exercises. To reflect the fact that video combines both viewing and listening (although the term "viewing" is often used to include listening), we will label these three phases "preparation," "presentation," and "expansion." The activities of the presentation phase include both viewing without sound and listening without images, as well as full video combining both listening and viewing. Some of the most creative activities of the presentation phase arise from the opportunity to focus the learner's attention on just the soundtrack or just the images.

The second axis of this matrix consists of the elements we hope to manipulate in one or more of the three phases. This list is infinitely extendable, but at the highest level certainly contains the elements of text (the words of the transcript), sound, and images:

	Preparation	Presentation	Expansion
Text
Sound
Image

How does this chart help in preparing a successful video lesson?

First, it is a reminder that video is not just a transcript delivered by television. Setting aside the fact that the artistic qualities of some video productions yield multiple layers of interlocking meanings, it is still safe to assume that even the most quotidian news clip has mutually reinforcing or complementary elements of text, sound, and image. By focusing the learner's attention on just one or two elements, we can provide a well-marked path into the forest. For example, the teacher might:

• 1) anticipate the content of the video by speculating about the title (preparation using an element of the text);
• 2) explore the key vocabulary of the segment by looking just at the images with the sound turned down (presentation of selected text elements via images);
• 3) play the full video while asking students to listen for a few main facts (a second stage of presentation); and
• 4) ask students to work in small groups to create simulated interviews with a figure from the video (expansion based on a single character's image and statements).

Second, even this simple matrix already suggests that some video segments lend themselves to one approach more readily than others. The text, for example, in the form of the transcript, is seldom a good starting point for stimulating listening; it is best held back to be discovered in small doses via the contextual clues provided by the images. But when the content of the text is rather familiar (e.g., a foreign documentary clip on the life of Martin Luther King), a partial transcript provided in advance of the video can motivate students working in small groups to speculate about lexicon, dates, names, and places. The video then becomes the answer key to verify how well they have brought their own knowledge of the world to bear on a comprehension task.

The following guide shows how the simple matrix above can be expanded into a more detailed array of elements of special concern to the instructor.

PICS Exercise Development Guide

	Preparation	Presentation	Expansion
Text: dialect
register
parts of speech: nouns
parts of speech:  verbs
familiar or difficult words
key words of topic
semantic categories: numbers
semantic categories: food terms
semantic categories: places

	Preparation	Presentation	Expansion
Text: segment title/topic
expressions/idioms
sentences: long vs. short ones
sentences: hard vs. easy ones
sentence structures: passive/active
sentence structures: subjunctive
speech acts: requests
speech acts: commands
lists

	Preparation	Presentation	Expansion
Text: paragraphs: descriptions
paragraphs: facts
paragraphs: main ideas
paragraphs: examples
paragraphs: arguments
dialogue
musical text
scenes
narration: plot elements
narration: time sequences
relationship of segments

	Preparation	Presentation	Expansion
Sound: pronunciation
hesitation sounds
colloquial speech: elision
colloquial speech: contractions
dialect
speed/clarity of language
laughter, coughing
background noise: vehicle sounds
background noise: champagne corks
background speech
back- or foreground music
relationship to text

	Preparation	Presentation	Expansion
Image: objects
actions: actions in text
actions: actions not in text
gestures
facial expressions
people
groups of people
clothing
places
nature
cultural content
single image (still frame)
short sequence
scene
text within images
relationship to sound
relationship to text
production techniques: editing of shots
production techniques: camera angles
genre conventions

The above chart or matrix can serve as a lesson preparation aid or as a convenient checklist of the features that can be exploited in developing a video-based lesson. One way to use it might be to fill in selected cells with the language skill and specific activity desired.

One Example

The following example is based a report on changes in the West German military draft law that extend the term of service from 15 months to 18 months; the story contains both rationale for the new policy and on-camera statements by several boys and young men who might be affected by the change. The annotations in the chart indicate the activities to be developed. The numbers indicate the order in which the activities will occur during a given phase.

	Preparation	Presentation	Expansion
Text: numbers		1. Listen for dates, ages, numbers.
Text: title	Talk about draft in the U.S.
Text: arguments		4. Focus on main issues by advance questions on subsegments.
Text: arguments			1. Orally summarize position of each person.
Text: dialogue		3. Match boys with their statements.
Text: dialogue		5. Cloze exercise on quotes by 3 draft-age youths.
Sound: colloquial speech			2. Discuss difficulty in understanding young speakers.
Image: people		2. Describe 3 boys using blackboard: view with sound off.

Nine More Dimensions

The approach suggested here is only the beginning. The specific implementation of an activity for a given phase takes the teacher beyond the two dimensions of the matrix into a multidimensional universe of possibilities. We list nine more here:

• beginning vs. intermediate vs. advanced ability levels
• concrete vs. abstract tasks
• in-class vs. at-home vs. language lab (small group or independent) activities
• individual vs. small-group vs. team vs. full-class work
• passive (in-place) vs. active (role-playing) activities
• production via discussion vs. writing vs. presentations
• receptive vs. productive skills
• teacher-generated vs. student-generated stimuli
• video-generated vs. text-generated vs. realia/reality-based activities

The Activities Inventory presented in the next section leaves open how these dimensions should be brought to bear on a given activity. In particular, it is important to note that the suggested activities indicated by verbs like "discuss," "present," "complete," "describe," or "identify" will fall to a combination of the teacher and individual students or small groups working either in class or in the lab, or even interacting with a microcomputer.

C. An Activities Inventory

Activities for Preparation
Activities for Presentation
Activities for Expansion

Preparation

1. Act out specific actions that are prominent in the segment.

2. Anticipate content and vocabulary by having students give personal examples related to topic of the segment.

3. Ask students to predict or identify the most (or least!) relevant vocabulary on a list, based on segment title or other indication of the topic.

4. Direct individuals or groups to complete a cloze (fill-in) activity based on a (partial) transcript; discuss answers without correcting.

5. Direct students to focus attention on certain events, expressions, things, people, terms, problems.

6. Discuss customs or cultural stereotypes to be encountered in the segment.

7. Discuss the title and predict the content of the segment.

8. Discuss a wider issue, period, topic, or problem addressed by the segment.

9. Display and discuss a map of relevant area.

10. Present samples of casual/unusual/difficult speech to be heard.

11. Require reading of a partial transcript (e.g., difficult dialogue or political speech).

12. Require reading of a related article, advertisement, poem, story, etc.; option: have students locate related text in newspapers, or magazines.

13. Require reading of text summarizing scenes or action; or: assign a cloze activity based on a summary of the segment.

14. Review grammatical forms to be heard.

15. Review the historical or technical background of a difficult topic; focus on activating students' own prior knowledge of the topic.

16. Review or exercise grammatical feature(s) used frequently in the text of the segment.

17. Review/present key vocabulary to be heard.

18. Use pictures, conversation, or realia to introduce the vocabulary of the segment.

Presentation

• Viewing without Sound

1. Complete statements describing or narrating the visual sequence.

2. Create a plausible narrative for the visual sequence; option: have small groups or pairs each take a subsegment and then present and compare results.

3. Describe and speculate about the occupation, age, relationships, etc., of people shown in sequences or single frames (use fast forward and pause); option: repeat immediately with sound.

4. Enumerate objects or a class of objects shown (students take notes during presentation of the video, instructor uses blackboard to assemble results).

5. Identify familiar people and places in the segment.

6. Indicate the probability or improbability that statements from a printed handout will be heard during the narration or dialogue.

7. Indicate whether statements about the segment are true or false.

8. Mark words from a list that are likely to appear in the narration or dialogue.

9. Predict the action of the next subsegment based on the previous one; option: repeat immediately with sound.

10. Reenact actions seen in the segment.

11. Relate people making on-camera speeches to a list of quotes from those figures; discuss guesses with full class.

12. Speculate in full class or smaller groups what the topic or action is (withhold title and limit preparatory activities).

• Listening without Images

1. Attempt to discover the setting of the video segment based only on the soundtrack.

2. Enumerate objects or a class of objects mentioned (students take notes as video plays, instructor uses blackboard to assemble results); repeat with images.

3. Indicate the probability or improbability that objects or actions will be seen in the segment.

4. Indicate whether statements about the segment are true or false.

5. Predict the action of the next subsegment based on previous one; repeat with images.

6. Reenact the actions and gestures of figures in a scene; then watch the scene and discuss the differences.

• Full Video

1. Check off or count occurrences or order a list of items appearing in the video.

2. Classify elements of the segment by marking or completing a chart.

3. Complete a partial outline of main points of the segment.

4. Complete a cloze exercise with blanked-out numbers, key words, easy or difficult words, verbs, nouns, or colors; option: provide list of choices.

5. Create a complete list of items from a specific category, such as numbers, places, airplane parts, actions seen or mentioned; option: replay and freeze-frame after each item, assembling a list on blackboard.

6. Enumerate objects or a class of objects presented (students take notes as video plays, instructor then uses blackboard to assemble results).

7. Transcribe the text of a song and then join in a sing-along.

8. Have students raise their hands when items from a given category appear in the video; rewind and replay so that all students hear the item.

9. Have groups each note items from a single category of items, e.g., actions, objects, numbers, and places in the text; follow up by assembling lists on blackboard; option: have each student form a sentence using expressions from at least two categories; erase words as they are used.

10. Identify words on a list that are English cognates of words used in the text.

11. Identify verbs on a list that are infinitives of verbs used in the text; supply the conjugated form.

12. Identify which questions on a list are answered by the segment.

13. Indicate the order in which sentences from the text occurred or were uttered.

14. Indicate the proper order of a list of actions according to when they happened in time or when they were presented in the segment.

15. Indicate whether statements about the segment are true or false.

16. Indicate which items on a list are heard and which are seen in the segment.

17. Mark multiple-choice questions that closely follow order of the segment.

18. Predict the action of the next subsegment based on the previous one.

19. Recreate the approximate narrative for the segment; option: have small groups or pairs each take a subsegment and then present the results.

20. Retell the action of a series of subsegments; specify the tense to be used; replay the subsegment as often as needed for general comprehension.

21. Stop on an image and describe the scene in order to elicit key vocabulary or structures such as colors, objects; compare people; locate buildings, objects, etc..

22. Take notes on five to ten main points using a list of key terms.

23. Transcribe brief subsegments such as conversations.

24. Transcribe expressions or sentences that answer content/factual questions.

Expansion

1. Complete a crossword puzzle using vocabulary and facts from segment.

2. Compose dialogues or narratives based on a list of idiomatic phrases from segment.

3. Conduct a team competition based on detailed student-generated true-false statements or who/what/when/where questions about the segment (including visual content).

4. Create a new, alternate, or humorous narrative or commentary for the segment; option: small groups or pairs each take a subsegment and then present the results.

5. Devise analogous situations for students to act out (compose the scenarios in small groups); option: videotape the resulting skits.

6. Find a segment you have never watched; have students watch it without you (in class or lab) and retell/reenact it for you with as many details as possible; option: play it in class and comment on the accuracy of their rendition.

7. Imagine characters in other situations.

8. Prepare and act out selected scenes or engage in role-playing or interviews based on characters from segment.

9. Research and report on related topics via group effort.

10. Retell the content of the segment based on notes taken earlier.

11. Select a particular scene or image and describe it in detail, either as small group or as written homework.

12. Select a key aspect or problem of the segment and apply it to the students' own situation; discuss pros and cons in small groups and present results in class or in writing.

13. Use an alternate narrative or soundtrack as follow-up cloze exercise.

14. Use the transcript to note differences between the formal (cleaned up) version of the text and features of actual speech such as elision, intonation, stress, hesitation, or false starts.

15. Use the transcript to note linguistic features such as slang, abbreviations, technical terms, word formation, or syntax.

16. Write an advertisement for a product appearing in a segment.

D. Readings

Altman, Rick. The Video Connection: Integrating Video into Language Teaching. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989.

Berwald, Jean-Pierre. Au Courant: Teaching French Vocabulary and Culture Using the Mass Media. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1986.

Birkbichler, D. W. Creative Activities for the Second-Language Classroom. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1982.

Geddes, M. and G. Strudbridge, eds. Video in the Language Classroom. London: Heinemann, 1982.

Gillespie, Junetta B., ed. "Video and Second Language Learning." Special issue of Studies in Language Learning, 5:1 (Spring 1985).

Lonergan, Jack. Video in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Omaggio, Alice C. Teaching Language in Context: Proficiency-Oriented Instruction. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1986.

Rivers, Wilga. Teaching Foreign Language Skills. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981.

Sinofsky, Esther R. Off-Air Videotaping in Education: Copyright Issues, Decisions, Implications. New York: R. R. Bowker, 1984.

Smith, Wm. Flint, ed., Modern Media in Foreign Language Education: Theory and Implementation. Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Textbook Company, 1987.

----- , ed. Modern Technology in Foreign Language Education: Applications and Projects. Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Textbook Company, 1989.

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